Identity status as a determinant of music preferences among high

Transkrypt

Krzysztof Basiński, Medical University of Gdańsk
Adam Sadowski*, University of Gdańsk
Identity status as a determinant of music
preferences among high-school adolescents
Abstract
The present research examined the influence of identity status on music preferences in
adolescents. Identity was measured using the U-GIDS scale, based on a theoretic framework by Marcia and Meeus. Music preferences were evaluated using the Short Test Of
Music Preferences by Rentfrow and Gosling. A group of 228 high school students completed the survey. Results showed that music described as reflective & complex and
upbeat & conventional was preferred less in a group of subjects with the diffused status
of identity. These outcomes are discussed in context of research on psychological determinants of music preferences.
Research on human development in adolescence has an important
place in psychological literature. This is due to complicated developmental
changes in biological, emotional, moral and cognitive functioning, as well as
in personality and social relations. Adolescence is a process that prepares
a young person to fulfil social roles in adulthood (Oleszkowicz & Senejko,
2011). A person creates his or hers inner, personal and dynamic organization of cravings, abilities and beliefs that Marcia (1980) defines as identity.
Research suggests that identity status is related to choosing a professional
career (Rostowski, 1998). The status of identity is influenced by national
and cultural context (Schwartz, Zamboanga, Meca, & Ritchie, 2012). Positive role of sports on identity development is also suggested (Gawinecka,
Radko, & Łucka, 2010).
* Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Adam Sadowski,
e-mail: [email protected].
212 Krzysztof Basiński, Adam Sadowski
QQ
Identity in adolescence
Identity can be defined at least in two ways. Individual identity is related
to experiencing own uniqueness and separateness, own aims and standards.
Social identity is expressed by cognitive ties with other people, identification with their aims, values and behaviour (Grzelak & Jarymowicz, 2007;
Gurba, 2011).
Erikson’s psychosocial development theory postulates that adolescence
is a crucial stage in human life. Of the eight stages of human development,
the fifth stage brings most changes to individual’s psychological life. Identity
evolves from early childhood, initially by receiving knowledge about oneself
from others. This evolution reaches a critical phase in adolescence, because
the entire process of forming one’s adult identity depends on transformations that happen in this period (Rostowski, 1997).
Erikson’s theoretic remarks on the formation of identity in the fifth stage
of human psychosocial development became the foundations for scientific
research on identity in adolescence. Among Erikson’s followers were James
Marcia and Wim Meeus. Marcia (1980), through processes of commitment
and exploration, aimed to extract observed manifestations of identity in behaviour, consequently pointing out measurable indicators of the structure
of identity. Young person verifies himself, tests his own capabilities and
relationships with other people, thus evaluating boundaries of his or hers
behaviour. The level of exploration of alternative solutions in decision making and the level of commitment to accepted aims and values led Marcia to
extract four statuses of identity, which manifest in professional, ideological
and social context (Kroger & Marcia, 2011; Marcia, 1980; Van Hoof, 1997).
Marcia’s identity statuses form a typology, from the least to the most mature. Their main determinant is the level of coping with identity conflict:
Diffused identity – because of their superficiality, individuals with this
status make decisions with ease, for it does not matter what they choose.
They can have no clear career path, do not see any point in affiliating with
groups, are withdrawn and distanced.
Foreclosure – individuals with this status have not yet suffered the identity crisis. Their source of beliefs is in identification with significant others, in
most cases parents. Their behaviour is based on opinions of others; parents
have a large influence on their plans. They are happy, pleased with themselves and not open to new experiences, which contributes to low anxiety.
Moratorium – individuals with this status suffer from identity crisis,
Identity status as a determinant of music preferences…
213
caused by active pursuance and analysis of their beliefs. High levels of anxiety
are characteristic of this status.
Achieved identity – individuals with this status have experienced and
solved their identity crisis. They have taken the responsibility for their actions and making decisions about their life plans (Kroger & Marcia, 2011;
Kroger, 1996; Marcia, 1980; Rydz, 2005).
Based on Marcia’s framework of the state of identity, Meeus (1996)
constructed a test that captures the process of identity development in adolescence, in relationship with psychological well-being. He divided adolescence
into four different periods: early adolescence (12–14), middle adolescence
(15–17), late adolescence (18–20) and postadolescence (21–24). He also
pointed out differences in identity status with regard to gender. Meeus adopted the descriptions of identity proposed by Marcia, supplementing them with
elements of process. He also formulated possible ways of identity transformation (Rostowski, 1997; Rydz, 2005).
QQ
Music preferences in adolescence
Different forms of activity, sources of entertainment and pleasure accompany each period of human development. Listening to music plays this role for
many modern adolescents, as it takes up a lot of their free time (North, Hargreaves, & O’Neill, 2000). Listening to music enables individuals to shape their
relationships with peers, regulate emotions, create atmosphere. Preferred
music, especially in adolescence, is a form of creating one’s image. Information about favourite bands and genres are submitted to social networking
sites. Impact of music taste on choosing partners have been reported, as similarity of music preferences is connected with attractiveness, intimacy and
satisfaction with future relationship (Boer et al., 2011; Rentfrow & Gosling,
2006; Tarrant, North, & Hargreaves, 2001). Bakagiannis and Tarrant (2006)
conducted a study, in which participants were informed about the similarity of music preferences between ingroup and outgroup. This resulted in
a change of attitudes and growth of inter-group relationships. Development
and stabilization of friendship is related to similarity of music preferences
(Selfhout, Branje, ter Bogt, & Meeus, 2009).
Listening to music in adolescence can also be understood in a developmental context. A peer group formed on the basis of similarities in
musical taste gives an individual a plethora of social attitudes, cognitive
values, cultural symbols, codes of behaviour and sources of knowledge. Thus,
listening to music, beside satisfying individual needs, plays a role in socializing with peers, and consequently, identity development (Bakagiannis &
Tarrant, 2006; Miranda & Claes, 2009). Temporary engagement in different
social roles helps to gain experience and information crucial to the formation of individual identity (Lonsdale & North, 2011; Rutkowska, 2002). Music
preferences are determined by cultural, familial, educational and personality
factors, and depend on age, experience in listening to music, gender and social environment (Lawendowski, 2011).
Research on preferences with regard to music genres were conducted
by Rentfrow and Gosling (2003), authors of the Short Test of Music Preferences
(STOMP). The authors, after using different methods of statistical analysis and
studying over 3,000 individuals, aligned 14 basic musical genres to four factors.
First factor, named reflective & complex, consisted of blues, classical, jazz and
folk music; second factor, intense & rebellious, consisted of heavy metal, rock
and alternative music; third factor, upbeat & conventional, consisted of country, pop, religious and sound tracks; finally fourth factor, energetic & rhythmic,
consisted of rap/hip-hop, soul and electronic music (Rentfrow & Gosling, 2003,
2006). STOMP method was adapted to Polish by Lawendowski (2011).
Schwartz and Fouts (2003) studied personality characteristics and developmental problems of three groups of music listeners: those preferring soft
music, those preferring hard music and those preferring eclectic music. They
found that each of those groups presents different personality characteristics and different developmental problems. These results suggest that young
people tend to listen to music that reflects their personality and is in accord
with their personal problems. This is confirmed further in research conducted by Chamorro-Premuzic and Furnham (2007) concerning the comparison
of reasons for listening to music with differences in personality and cognitive
capabilities. Neurotic individuals use music to regulate their emotions, while
individuals with high openness use it in cognitive context. A study by Leung
and Kier (2010) showed that preference for hip-hop, rap, blues, dance, house,
electronica, industrial, techno and trance leads to an increased tendency to
spend money, while preference for classical, opera, musical, oldies, rock and
alternative is associated with saving money. These results are thought to
reflect increased impulsiveness in the first and a more mature life style in
the second group. Thus, a relationship between life style, behaviour, attitudes
and music preferences has been suggested.
QQ
215
Aim of current research
Identity status in Marcia-Meeus theory is related to overall psychological maturity. The development of identity progresses from lower, less mature
statuses (diffused, foreclosure, moratorium), to a fully mature achieved identity. Youth in adolescence is especially prone to external influence, especially
from peer groups (Rutkowska, 2002). It is however reasonable to believe,
that susceptibility to that kind of influence is less severe when a young persons identity is fully established.
Music preferences in adolescence are a significant factor in self-determination. They can also play a role in binding together peer groups (North et al.,
2000). However, the strength of influence of these peer groups on the individual’s values and belief system depends on identity matureness. Thus, it is
reasonable to believe that music preferences may be significantly dependant
on the status of identity.
The present research aimed to explore the impact of identity status on
music preferences in adolescence. To determine meaningful categories of
music preferences and attach a psychological meaning to them, we applied
a methodology suggested by Rentfrow and Gosling (2003), that is to determine the dimensions of music preferences in a given sample using factor
analysis. These dimensions should be similar to those reported in the original, American study.
Lack of literature on the subject prevents us from stating detailed hypothesis about the studied phenomenon. However it is reasonable to assume that
a group with diffused identity should prefer reflective & complex genres less
compared to other identity statuses. Music from that factor tends to be more
difficult, complicated and introspective – qualities that are not preferred by subjects with diffused identity. Following the same logic, subjects with diffused
identity should prefer upbeat & conventional music, since it is simpler, easier
to understand and oriented towards convening positive emotions. Preferences
for energetic & rhythmic music are probably more related to temperamental
and personality variables, thus it is less likely that relationships with identity
shall be observed. Intense & rebellious music should be positively related to
moratorium, as strong feelings of unrest, anxiety and lack of attachment to established norms characterize subjects with that identity status.
Because of the exploratory nature of current research, we limited ourselves to asking the following questions:
1. Is diffused identity related to disfavour for certain genres of music,
such as those within the reflective & complex factor?
2. Consequently, is diffused identity related to preference for other genres of music, such as those within the upbeat & conventional factor?
3. Is the moratorium identity status related to preference for genres of
music within the intense & rebellious factor?
QQ
Participants
233 high school students participated in the study. 5 were excluded from
analysis because of significant lacks in answers (final N = 228). The study
was performed in ten classes (one first grade, four second grade, four third
grade and one fourth grade – a language class with a four year program).
Participants were aged between 15 and 21 (M=17,48, SD=0,96). The sample
consisted of 139 girls (61%) and 88 boys (38,6%). One person did not provide gender information.
The research was conducted between May and November 2013 in high
schools in Gdańsk and Płońsk, Poland. The participants were asked to complete a questionnaire consisting of a method for evaluating music preferences,
identity status, and basic demographic data.
QQ
Methods
To assess declarative music preferences, we used the Short Test of Music Preferences (STOMP) (Rentfrow & Gosling, 2003), in a Polish adaptation
by Lawendowski (2011). This method consists of two parts. In the first section, subjects must assess (on a 7-step Likert scale) his preferences of each of
14 genres of music. Second section consists of a list of 15 adjectives. Subjects
are required to say, how well does each adjective describe their favourite
song or album. Polish adaptation of this method has satisfying psychometric
properties – reliability, validity and generalizability over time.
To evaluate the status of identity, we used the Utrecht-Groningen Identity
Development Scale (U-GIDS) (Meeus, 1996, 2011), in Polish adaptation by Jan
Rostowski. The method provides means to assess identity on dimensions of
commitment and exploration. It consists of 54 statements concerning identity development in fields of interpersonal relationships, school, ideology and
relationships with parents. 32 statements are diagnostic for commitment,
while 22 are for exploration. Following a methodological strategy suggested
217
by Meeus, results on each dimension are median split to low and high values.
Four groups corresponding to four possible statuses are created, as detailed
above. The original version as well as Polish adaptation of U-GIDS have good
psychometric properties (Cronbach’s alpha between 0,74 and 0,93) (Meeus,
1996; Rostowski, 1997; Rydz, 2005).
QQ
Results
QQ The structure of music preferences
To determine the structure of music preferences measured by STOMP,
we performed an exploratory factor analysis using the principal components
method. Because of possible intercorrelations between factors, a non-orthogonal Oblimin rotation was used. Number of factors was determined using
a scree plot. Analysis showed the existence of four factors, explaining 58,8%
of total variance. Table 1 shows factor loadings of tested music genres.
Table 1. Factor loadings for music genres from STOMP
Factors
1
Country
.803
Classical
.722
Jazz
.690
Blues
.608
Religious
.586
Folk
.579
Sound tracks
.483
Soul/Funky
.428
2
Rock
.792
Alternative
.684
Heavy Metal
.593
3
Rap/Hip-hop
.829
Electronica
.692
Pop
4
.828
The genres comprising each factor differ from the original results of Rentfrow and Gossling (2003). First factor consists of genres originally forming
the reflective & complex dimension (blues, classical, folk, jazz), although with
an addition of country, religious, soul/funky and sound tracks. These genres loaded the upbeat & conventional factor in the original study. The second
factor, comprising rock, alternative and heavy metal, mirrors the intense &
rebellious factor from the original research. The third factor consists of electronica and hip-hop/rap genres that loaded the energetic & rhythmic factor
in Rentfrow and Gosling’s study, along with soul/funky music. Finally, fourth
factor consisted only of pop music, which originally was the strongest loading
genre of the upbeat & conventional factor. Additionally, country, religious and
sound track music loaded that dimension in the original study.
We believe that differences in outcomes of factor analysis between
the current and original research result from significant cultural differences
between samples. Despite the discrepancies in factor loadings, the four-factor
structure of music preferences proposed by Rentfrow and Gosling has been
preserved. Connotations of music genres among Polish youth seem to correspond with meanings of dimensions proposed by American researchers.
Thus, later in this article, we shall identify our resulting factors with those
proposed by Rentfrow and Gosling, according to the formula:
QQ Factor 1 – reflective & complex
QQ Factor 2 – intense & rebellious
QQ Factor 3 – energetic & rhythmic
QQ Factor 4 – upbeat & conventional
QQ Relationships between identity status and music preferences
The results of scales of commitment and exploration were calculated
from the U-GIDS test. Four groups corresponding to four identity statuses
were formed after performing the median split. Table 2 outlines those groups,
including gender and age.
Most subjects fell into the group with diffused identity (32,5%). Achieved
identity characterized 28,9% subjects while 20,2% had foreclosure and
18,4% moratorium statuses. Analysis of age and gender differences between
the groups did not yield any significant results.
To test the hypothesis of relationships between identity statuses and
music preferences, a one-way independent group ANOVA was performed.
The analysis showed a statistically significant effect of identity status on
219
music preferences for reflective & complex factor, F(3, 244) = 4,42; p < 0,01,
and for upbeat & conventional factor, F(3, 224) = 3,44; p < 0,05. To determine between which identity statuses the differences were significant, post
hoc comparisons were performed. Bonferroni test revealed significant (p
< 0,05) differences between diffused, foreclosure and achieved identity in
the R&C factor. In the U&C factor, differences were reported only by LSD test
(p < 0,05). These relationships were observed between diffused, foreclosure
Rap/Hip-hop
.829
and achieved
identity as well. This outcome should be
treated with caution
Electronica
.692
though, because of the liberal character of the LSD test. There were no signifPop
.828 values of
icant differences
among I&R and E&R factors. Figure 1 shows mean
music preferences for four identity statuses in factors R&C and U&C.
Table 2. Age and gender in groups of different identity statuses
Identity status
Identity status
Diffused
Moratorium
Foreclosure
AchievedMoratorium
Achieved
74 (32,5%)
45 (32,3%)
42 (18,4%)
29 (20,9%)
74 (32,5%)
4642
(20,2%)
(18,4%)
(20,2%)
6646
(28,9%)
66 (28,9%)
228
Total
N boys
N girls
45 (32,3%)
27(20,9%)
(19,4%)
29
27
38(19,4%)
(27,3%)
38 (27,3%)
Mean age
29 (33,0%)
17,41
13 (14,8%)
17,19
N boys
Mean age
29 (33,0%)
17,41
19 (21,6%) 17,19 17,80
13 (14,8%)
19 (21,6%)
27 (30,7%) 17,80 17,52
27 (30,7%)
17,52
139
228
139
88
88
17,47
17,47
Figure 1. Comparison of means of R&C and U&C factors
in groups
with
different
identity
statuses
Figure 1. Comparison
of means
of R&C
and U&C
factors
in groups with different
identity statuses
6
5
4
3
2
1
Reflective & Complex
Upbeat & Conventional
Achieved
Moratorium
Foreclosure
Diffused
Achieved
Foreclosure
0
Diffused
Total
N girls
N
Foreclosure
Moratorium
Diffused
N
Table 2. Age and gender in groups of different identity statuses
Genres from the reflective & complex factor (country, classical, sound
tracks, jazz, blues, religious, folk, soul/funky) are preferred less by subjects
with diffused identity (M = 3,22; SD = 1,25) in comparison with subjects with
foreclosure status (M = 3,85; SD = 1,08) and achieved identity (M = 3,80; SD
= 1,10). The same relationship was found for upbeat & conventional music.
Subjects with diffused identity preferred that kind of music less (M = 4,17;
SD = 1,68) than subjects with foreclosure status (M = 4,97; SD = 1,64) and
achieved status of identity (M = 4,89; SD = 1,62).
Relationship between the scales of commitment and exploration from
U-GIDS and the factors of music preferences was also examined. A linear regression analysis was performed for each one of the four factors of music
preferences. A model that assumes the effect of identity status on the reflective & complex dimension fit the data well, F(2, 255) = 11,11; p < 0,001.
The only statistically significant predictor of this dimension was commitment (standardized ß = 0,288; p < 0,001). A model that assumes the effect
of identity status on universal & complex dimension also fit the data well,
F(2, 255) = 6,07; p < 0,01. Again, the only significant predictor was commitment (standardized ß = 0,213; p < 0,01). Models assuming the effects of
identity on intense & rebellious and energetic & rhythmic factors were not
significant. These relationships suggest that higher commitment is related to
preferring reflective & complex (country, classical, sound tracks, jazz, blues,
religious, folk, soul/funky) and upbeat & conventional (pop) music.
QQ
Discussion
Factor structure of music preferences obtained in the current study is
in line with the four dimensions proposed by Rentfrow and Gosling (2003).
Although the genres loading each factor were different in the Polish adolescents sample than in the original research, this is not surprising as it accounts
for major cultural, social and environmental differences between studied
populations. Research conducted in different countries also observed that
phenomenon (Gardikiotis & Baltzis, 2011). Results obtained in the current
study confirm the four-factor model of music preferences proposed by Rentfrow and Gosling.
The impact of identity on music preferences has been discovered only
for two factors – reflective & complex and upbeat & conventional. Genres
221
loading the R&C factor were preferred less by youth with diffused identity,
which confirms our initial hypothesis. People with diffused identity are described as withdrawn, distanced and not willing to be part of social groups.
This most likely explains their lack of interest in genres that are more difficult to perceive, require active listening and self-reflection. This outcome
can be explained in the social context as well – fans of such music genres as
blues, jazz or classical tend to form hermetic, elitist groups. Persons with
diffused identity status may simply not be interested in membership in
such groups.
Upbeat & complex music is preferred less by subjects with diffused
identity status. This outcome contradicts our initial hypothesis. Perhaps it
is caused by (characteristic to the diffused identity status) withdrawal and,
consequently, lack of identification with mainstream music. A moderator variable may also exist (most likely in the form of a personality factor, such as
neurotism) that explains these relationships. However, no dependable conclusions can be made based on results of the current study.
Preferences for energetic & rhythmic music proved to be unrelated to
identity. This confirms the hypothesis of temperamental and personality
factors influencing preferences for that type of music (Lawendowski, 2011).
Membership in certain subcultures may also predict the preference for E&R
factor (Gardikiotis & Baltzis, 2011). Hypothesis of the relationship between
intense & rebellious music and identity did not receive any empirical evidence. Mean values of preferences were higher in subjects with moratorium
status, however the differences turned out to be statistically insignificant.
This may be due to relatively small number of subjects with moratorium in
comparison with other identity statuses in the studied sample.
Linear relationship between commitment and preference for reflective
& complex and upbeat & conventional music is especially interesting. This
scale measures the level of commitment in subject’s aims and values (Marcia,
1980). There are two possible sources for this relationship. In the case of
reflective & complex music, commitment can refer to the system of beliefs
adopted from parents, which in turn manifests itself in preference for more
difficult and complex music, preferred by mature listeners (especially with
regard to genres such as jazz, blues and classical). In the case of upbeat & conventional music, this relationship may be due to the adoption of beliefs from
peers, as pop music (mainstream by definition) is the most popular genre
among young people.
QQ
Conclusions
The outcomes of this study confirm the hypothesis of relationships between identity statuses and music preferences. Adolescence is a period in
life crucial to the development of beliefs, preferences and values, which may
persist throughout adulthood. Consequently, it is safe to assume that music
preferences developed in adolescence remain through the course of individual’s life. Thus, further studies in this area may shed more light at psychological
determinants of music preferences.
QQ
References
Bakagiannis, S., & Tarrant, M. (2006). Can music bring people together? Effects of
shared musical preference on intergroup bias in adolescence. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 47(2), 129–36. doi: 10.1111/j.1467–9450.2006.00500.x
Boer, D., Fischer, R., Strack, M., Bond, M.H., Lo, E., & Lam, J. (2011). How shared
preferences in music create bonds between people: values as the missing link.
Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(9), 1159–1171.
Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & Furnham, A. (2007). Personality and music: can traits
explain how people use music in everyday life? British Journal of Psychology (London, England: 1953), 98(Pt 2), 175–85. doi: 10.1348/000712606X111177.
Gardikiotis, A., & Baltzis, A. (2011). “Rock music for myself and justice to the world!”:
Musical identity, values, and music preferences. Psychology of Music, 40(2), 143–
163. doi: 10.1177/0305735610386836.
Gawinecka, M., Radko, M., & Łucka, I. (2010). Sport jako aktywny styl życia – w poszukiwaniu własnej tożsamości. Psychiatria, 7(3), 117–122.
Grzelak, J.Ł., & Jarymowicz, M. (2007). Tożsamość i współzależność. In J. Strelau
(ed.), Psychologia. Podręcznik akademicki. (pp. 107–125). Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.
Gurba, E. (2011). Wczesna dorosłość. In J. Trempała (ed.), Psychologia rozwoju człowieka (pp. 271–274). Warszawa: PWN.
Kroger, J. (1996). Identity in Adolescence: The Balance Between Self and Other. Florence: Routledge.
Kroger, J., & Marcia, J.E. (2011). The identity statuses: Origins, meanings, and interpretations. In S. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V.L. Vignoles (eds.), Handbook of identity
theory and research (Vols 1 and 2) (pp. 31–53). New York: Springer Science +
Business Media.
Lawendowski, R. (2011). Osobowościowe uwarunkowania preferencji muzycznych
w zależności od wieku. Kraków: Impuls.
223
Leung, A., & Kier, C. (2010). Music preferences and young people’s attitudes towards
spending and saving. Journal of Youth Studies, 13(6), 681–698.
Lonsdale, A.J., & North, A.C. (2011). Why do we listen to music? A uses and gratifications analysis. British Journal Of Psychology (London, England: 1953), 102(1),
108–134.
Marcia, J.E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In A. J (ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology. New York: Wiley.
Meeus, W. (1996). Studies on Identity Development in Adolescence: An Overview of
Research and Some New Data. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 25(5), 569–98.
Meeus, W. (2011). The Study of Adolescent Identity Formation 2000–2010: A Review
of Longitudinal Research. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(1), 75–94.
Miranda, D., & Claes, M. (2009). Music listening, coping, peer affiliation and
depression in adolescence. Psychology of Music, 37(2), 215–233. doi:
10.1177/0305735608097245.
North, A.C., Hargreaves, D.J., & O’Neill, S.A. (2000). The importance of music to adolescents. The British Journal Of Educational Psychology, 70 ( Pt 2), 255–272.
Oleszkowicz, A., & Senejko, A. (2011). Dorastanie. In J. Trempała (ed.), Psychologia
rozwoju człowieka (pp. 259–286). Warszawa: PWN.
Rentfrow, P.J., & Gosling, S.D. (2003). The do re mi’s of everyday life: The structure
and personality correlates of music preferences. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 84(6), 1236–1256. doi: 10.1037/0022–3514.84.6.1236.
Rentfrow, P.J., & Gosling, S.D. (2006). Message in a ballad: the role of music preferences in interpersonal perception. Psychological Science, 17(3), 236–42. doi:
10.1111/j.1467–9280.2006.01691.
Rostowski, J. (1997). Specyfika kształtowania się tożsamości w okresie młodości. In
J. Rostowski, T. Rostowska, & I. Janicka (eds.), Psychospołeczne aspekty rozwoju
człowieka (pp. 159–164). Łódź: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego.
Rostowski, J. (1998). Rola statusu tożsamości osobowej w procesie wyboru kariery
zawodowej. Folia Psychologica 2. Acta Universitis Lodziensis.
Rutkowska, K. (2002). Rola grupy rówieśniczej w procesie formowania się tożsamości. In A. Brzezińska, M. Bardziejewska, & B. Ziółkowska (eds.), Szanse rozwoju
w okresie dorastania (pp. 111–130). Poznań: Wydawnictwo Fundacja Humaniora.
Rydz, S. (2005). Osobowościowe uwarunkowania przekształceń statusów tożsamości
osobowej u młodzieży. Gdańsk: Niepublikowana rozprawa doktorska, Uniwersytet Gdański.
Schwartz, K., & Fouts, G. (2003). Music preferences, personality style, and developmental issues of adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32(3), 205–213.
Schwartz, S.J., Zamboanga, B.L., Meca, A., & Ritchie, R.A. (2012). Identity around
the world: an overview. New Directions For Child And Adolescent Development,
2012(138), 1–18.
Selfhout, M.H.W., Branje, S.J.T., ter Bogt, T.F.M., & Meeus, W.H.J. (2009). The role of music preferences in early adolescents’ friendship formation and stability. Journal of
Adolescence, 32(1), 95–107.
Tarrant, M., North, A.C., & Hargreaves, D.J. (2001). Social Categorization, Self-Esteem,
and the Estimated Musical Preferences of Male Adolescents. Journal of Social Psychology, 141(5), 565–581.
Van Hoof, A. (1997). Identity formation in adolescence: structural integration and
guiding influences. Utrecht: Enschede Febo Druk.

Identity status as a determinant of music preferences among high

Transkrypt

Podobne dokumenty

Upbeat 1. Przykładowy test egzaminacyjny. Zestaw 1