Ekologia tropikalna 3ce

Tropical ecology
Tropical bidiversity:
Species richness,
Diversity of life strategies
(January Weiner)
Problems:
• Clinal variation of biotic diversity on the
Earth
• Hypotheses explaining richnes of triopical
biodiversity
• Adaptive strategies of organisms in the
tropics
– INTERACTIONS
Adaptive strategies
of tropical herbivores
• Life in tree canopies (sloths, monkeys,
squirels)
• Seedeaters and fruiteaters (birds)
• Nectarivores (pollinators)
• Herbivory - metabolic symbioses: termites,
longhorn beetles, sloths, large savannah
ungulates;
• Defense strategies of tropical plants
(effects of productivity limitation)
Species richness of small homeotherms in tree
canopies of equatorial forests (Primack i Corlett 2005)
Parrots
Wood
cangaroos
Australia
13
2
New Gwinea
43
8
Region
Primates
Squirrels
Tupaias
Other
Java, Borneo,
Sumatra
2
37
10
7
1
S-E Asia
2
31
5
6
1
Philipines
1
2
1
12
1
7
1
6
India
Sri Lanka
1
6
5
African forests
14
14
8
Madagascar
35
Amazon
22
7
50
2
Central America
4
7
32
4
7
3
Sciurus granatensis
(IVIC, Venezuela)
Brown-throated three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus)
Choroni, Venezuela
IVIC, Venezuela
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Iguassu. Brasil
Pantanal. Brasil
Black-capped (tufted) Capuchin, Cebus apella Black-tufted marmoset Callithrix penicilata
World range of primates (human excluded)
Colobus gueresa
(Kenia)
Cercopithecus mitis
(Kenia)
Monodelphis scalops [Long-nosed Short-tailed Opossum]
Iguassu. Brasil
Coati (Nasua nasua)
Iguassu. Brasil
Coati (Nasua nasua)
Iguassu. Brasil
Strategies of frugivory (zoochory)
• Birds: parrots, tucans, tanagras and many others; bats:
– medium sized, brightly colored fruits
– „gulpers” and „mashers”
• Mammals (monkeys)
– Large fruits
• Fish
– (seasonally flooded forest: Llanos, Amazon, Pantanal)
• Fig strategy (early successional)
• Stone fruit strategy (dense mature forests)
ZOOCHORY
(A half of tropical tree species at minimum)
Red-breasted Toucan (Ramphastos bicolorus)
Iguassu Brasil
Chestnut-eared Aracari (Pteroglossus castanotis)
Iguassu, Brasil
Toucan toco (Ramphastes toco)
Pantanal, Brasil
Toucan toco (Ramphastes toco)
Pantanal, Brasil
Groove-billed Toucanet (Aulacorhynchus sulcatus)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Red-billed Hornbill
Tocus erythrorynchus
Samburu, Kenia
PARROTS (Psittacidae):
pantropical family
RANGE OF PARROTS (PSITTACIFORMES)
Blue-and-yellow Macaw (Ara ararauna)
Iguassu, Brasil
Scarlet macaw (Ara macao)
Iguassu, Brasil
Hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus)
Iguassu, Brasil
Blue-fronted Amazon
(Amazona aestiva)
Pantanal. Brasil
Blue-fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva)
Pantanal. Brasil
TANAGERS (Thraupinae; Emberizidae)
appr. 250 species, mainly forest dwelling
Thraupis episcopus
Blue-gray tanager
Tangara arthus
Golden tanager
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Swallow tanager
Tersina viridis
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Bay-headed Tanager (Tangara gyrola)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Orange-bellied Euphonia (Euphonia xanthogaster)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Violaceous Euphonia (Euphonia violacea)
Iguassu, Brasil
Silver-beaked Tanager (Ramphocelus carbo)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Simaba cedron,
Simaroubaceae
LARGE FOREST
GALLINACEOUS BIRDS
Fam. Cracidae (czubacze)
Ortalis ruficauda
Rufous-vented chacalaca
Crax daubentoni
Yellow-cnobbed curassow
Photo R. Laskowski
Red-throated Piping-guan
(Pipile cujubi)
Iguassu, Brasil
SAVANNAH
& GRASSLAND
LARGE
GALLINACEOUS
BIRDS
Helmeted Guineafowl
(Numida meleagris)
Samburu, Kenia
Vulturine Guineafowl Acryllium vulturinum
Samburu, Kenia
Otididae
Black-bellied Bustard (Lissotis melanogaster)
Samburu, Kenia
GIANT Ratitae
Ostrich
Struthio camelus
Massai Mara, Kenia
Nandu (Rhea americana)
Pantanal, Brasil
Red-winged tinamou (Tinamidae) Rhynchotus rufescens
Iguassu, Brasil
BIG UNGULATES OF GRASSLANDS
Savannah ujngulates
Reticulated Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata)
Samburu, Kenia
African elephant (Loxodonta africana)
Samburu, Kenia
Antelopes (>90 extant species, mostly African)
Thommsons gazelle
Eudorcas thomsonii
Grant’s gazelle (Nanger granti)
Gerenuk (Litocranius walleri)
Impala (Aepyceros melampus)
Samburu, Kenia
Hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus)
Topi (Damaliscus lunatus)
Wildebeest
(Connochaetes taurinus)
Plains zebra (Equus quagga)
Savannah ujngulates
African buffalo (Syncerus caffer)
Savannah ujngulates
East African Oryx (Oryx beisa)
175 kg
Samburu, Kenia
Kirk's Dik-dik (Madoqua kirkii)
6 kg
Samburu, Kenia
Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana)
Saiga (Saiga tatarica)
Forest dwelling large ungulates
Gray Brocket (Mazama gouazoubira)
Pantanal, Brasil
Hoazin
Opisthocomus hoazin
(„a ruminant”)
FOOD:
leaves 82%
flowers 10%
fruits 8%
Crop transformed
into fermenting
chamber
Photo R. Laskowski
DiGRESSION:
FRUITS
& CROPS
IN (1610-1665)
THE TROPICS
Brazilian fruits
by Albert
Eckhout
THE ORIGIN OF
CROPUPRAWNYCH
PLANTS
POCHODZENIE
ROŚLIN
Wielka Encyklopedia Geografii Świata, Wyd. Kurpisz
FRUITS
Avocado (Persea americana)
Avocado
WORLD PRODUCTION OF AVOCADO
no significant production
% of world production
Plantation of bananas, Ocumare de la Costa, Venezuela
Banana (Musa sativa)
Ocumare de la Costa
Venezuela
WORLD PRODUCTION OF BANANAS
no significant production
% of world production
AREAS OF BANANA PLANTATIONS IN THE WORLD
Variations of bananas (market in Curitiba, Brasil)
Papaya
Carica papaya
enzyme papain
(market in Curitiba, Brasil)
Papaya „lechosa”; Venezuela
Mango (Mangifera indica)
(market in Curitiba, Brasil)
MANGO
Carambola Averrhoa carambola
(Origin: SE Asia)
Carambola Averrhoa carambola
Soursop (guanábana, graviola) (Annona muricata L.)
Maracuya (Passiflora edulis) – „granadilla”
Venezuela
Maracuya (Passiflora edulis)
(market in Curitibie, Brasil)
Tuna, fruit of a cactus (Opuntia i in.)
Mamon, mamoncillo (Melicoccus bijugatus)
Mamon, mamoncillo (Melicoccus bijugatus)
WORLD SUGAR PRODUCTION
Wielka Encyklopedia Geografii Świata, Wyd. Kurpisz
Sugar cane (Saccharum sp.)
Ocumare de la Costa
Venezuela
Coffee (Coffea L.)
Ocumare de la Costa
Venezuela
BRASILIAN NUTS
(Bertholletia excelsa)
(market in Curitiba, Brasil)
Various nuts and seeds
(market in Curitiba, Brasil)
Taro (Colocasia esculenta); Araceae
Ocumare de la Costa
Venezuela
Batata; „sweet potato” (Ipomoea batatas), Convolvulaceae
WORLD PRODUCTION OF BATATAS
Maniok(CASSAVA,
(casava) YUCA) (Manihot
MANIOK
esculenta)
Ocumare de la Costa
Venezuela
MANIOK (CASSAVA, YUCA)
(market in Curitiba, Brasil)
WORLD PRODUCTION OF CASSAVA
Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis)
Drzewo chlebowe
Ocumare de la Costa
Venezuela
WORLD PROCUTION OF CACAO
BACK TO THE TOPIC
SEEDEATERS: Weaverbirds (Ploceidae)
Plocepasser mahali
Weaverbirds
Samburu, Kenia
Dinemellia dinemelli
Ploceus rubiginosus
Pseudonigrita cabanisi
Red-billed Quelea (Quelea quelea)
Most abundant bird species on Earth: 1,5 bln
Insect pollination (entomophily)
no anemophily (wind pollination) in rainforests!
entomophily
POLLINATING BIRDS
1 – hummingbirds (Trochilidae), 2 - bananaquits (Coerebidae), 3 - sunbirds
(Nectariniidae), 4 - loris (Trichoglossidae), 5 - honeycreepers (Drepanidae).
after Szafer 1969
POLLINATING MAMMALS
1 – New World leaf-nosed bats (Phyllostomatidae), 2 – fruit bats (Pteropidae),
3 – tupaias (Tupaiidae), 4 - brushtail possums (Phalangeridae);
after Szafer 1969
Nectar-feeders, pollinators (and thieves )
Hummingbirds
Choroni, Venezuela
Phaethornis eurynome
Iguassu, Brasil
Melanotrochilus fuscus Iguassu, Brasil
Erythtina sp.
Tanagras (Thraupinae)
Cyanerpes cyaneus eximius
Red-legged honeycreeper
Cukrzyki (Coerebidae)
Coereba flaveola
Bananaquit
Photo R. Laskowski
Blue dacnis (female) (Dacnis cayana)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
Eastern Double-collared sunbird
(Nectarinia [Cynnyris] mediocris)
Mt. Kenia, Kenia
Tacazze Sunbird, Nectarinia tacazze
Mt. Kenia, Kenia
Feijoa=Acca sellowiana, Myrtaceae;
ornithophilous tree
Curitiba, Brasil
Strelizia reginae
FLOWERPIERCERS (2 genera of tanagers,Thraupidae)
Masked Flowerpiercer
(Diglossopis cyanea)
Glossy Flowerpiercer
(Diglossa lafresnayii)
PREDATION
AND ARMS RACE
(VARIOUS KINDS OF MIMICRY,
CHEMICAL DEFENCE,
DEFENCE ALLIANCES)
„FLYCATCHERS”: JACAMARS, BEE-EATERS
Galbula ruficauda
Rufous-tailed jacamar
Cinnamon-chested Bee-eater
Merops oreobates (Kenia)
Tityridae [form. Tyrannidae]
Chestnut-crowned Becard (Pachyramphus castaneus)
Rancho Grande, Venezuela
TROPICAL FLYCATCHERS: Tyrannidae
Myiodynastes chrysocephalus
Golden crowned flycatcher
Bentewi
Myiarchus sp.
Photo R. Laskowski
Vermilion Flycatcher Pyrocephalus rubinus
Pantanal, Brasil
RAPTORS AND SCAVENGERS
New World vultures
Coragyps atratus
Black vulture
Cathartes aura
Turkey vulture
Coragyps atratus
Black vulture
Pantanal, Brasil
Largest avian
carnivores
(carrion eaters)
White-backed vulture
Gyps africanus
Largest terrestrial carnivores
Lion (Panthera leo)
Tiger (Panthera tigris)
JAGUAR
(Panthera onca)
Pantanal, Brasil
FISHEATERS
Coasts, mangroves, archipelagos
Pelecanus occidentalis
Brown Pelican
Fregata magnificens
Magnificent frigatebird
Fregata wielka
Phaeton aethreus mesonauta
Red-billed tropic bird
Faeton białosterny
Photo R. Laskowski
COEVOLUTION
CAMBIO-XYLOPHAGES
LONGHORN BEETLES
(Cerambycidae)
20 thousands species in the tropics
Metabiolic symbioses
Harlequin Acrocinus longimanus (Cerambycidae; Venezuela)
PHORESIS: pseudoscorpion Cordylochernes scorpioides
ANTBIRDS
Thamnophilidae
209 gat. Neotropikalnych
GROUND ANTBIRDS
Formicariidae
56 GAT. NEOTROPIKALNYCH
http://montereybay.com/creagrus/antbirds.html
ARMY ANTS
Eciton sp.
TERMITES
• Metabolic symbiosis
• Biogeochemic role
• Food for specialized predators
• „Ecosystem engineers”
MYRMECOPHAGES
(Ant- & termite-eaters)
Aardvark (Orycteropus afer)
South Africa
Giant anteater
(Myrmecophaga tridactyla)
South America