Maria Todorova Language in the construction of ethnicity and
Transkrypt
Maria Todorova Language in the construction of ethnicity and
Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts Maria Todorova Language in the construction of ethnicity and nationalism: the Bulgarian case Offering a general theoretical background on nationalism, this article provides a survey of the evolution of Bulgarian nationalism and its dominant tropes in the course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Against this background, it traces the place and role of language as a unifying or disuniting factor. Two separate approaches to language are employed: one, following the traditional treatment of language as ethnically defined speech; the other, analyzing language as the discourse of ethnicity/nationalism. The article looks at the formation of the Bulgarian literary language during the nineteenth century, and explores the parallel fate of bi- and multi-lingualism among the Bulgarian population. The language problem in the Bulgarian case has, to a great extent, been overlooked. There are two main reasons for this. One is that, compared to Serbia, Romania and especially to Greece, the language discussion, although considered pivotal, never acquired the centrality in the public debate as it did in the other Balkan countries. The other reason is that, in the context of the Bulgarian revival itself, the language question was overshadowed by the more vigorous and intensive struggles for a national church and political emancipation, because it coincided with them in time. Still, language was perceived by national and cultural leaders as the mightiest agent of unification. While it is one of the most important components of the ethnic cluster, the record shows that common language was neither absolutely necessary nor sufficient to distinguish ethnicity. Key words: Bulgarian nationalism, language, ethnicity Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts Język w konstruowaniu etniczności i narodowości: przypadek Bułgarii Przedstawiwszy ogólne podstawy teorii nacjonalizmu, autorka artykułu omawia dokonującą się w stuleciach XIX i XX ewolucję nacjonalizmu bułgarskiego i dominujące w niej tendencje. Na tym tle analizuje miejsce i rolę języka jako czynnika unifikującego bądź dezintegrującego. Zastosowane zostały dwa odrębne podejścia: 1. zgodne z tradycyjnym traktowaniem języka jako zdefiniowanej etnicznie mowy; 2. analizujące język jako dyskurs „etniczność – nacjonalizm”. Artykuł omawia kształtowanie się bułgarskiego języka literackiego w XIX w. i analizuje równoległe losy dwu- lub wielojęzyczności u Bułgarów. W przypadku Bułgarii kwestia językowa należy do tych, które dotychczas były wręcz pomijane. Wynika to z dwóch zasadniczych przyczyn. Po pierwsze, w porównaniu z Serbią, Rumunią, a zwłaszcza Grecją, dyskusja o języku, choć uznawana za kluczową, nigdy nie stanęła w centrum debaty publicznej, jak to się stało w innych krajach bałkańskich. Po drugie, w kontekście samego odrodzenia bułgarskiego, kwestia językowa została przesłonięta przez bardziej żywotną i intensywniejszą walkę o Kościół narodowy i emancypację polityczną, ponieważ zbiegła się z nią w czasie. Niemniej, przywódcy życia narodowego i kulturowego postrzegali język jako najprężniejszy czynnik unifikacji. I choć istotnie należy on do najważniejszych komponentów kompleksu etnicznego, to jednak przekazy dowodzą, że wspólny język nie jest ani niezbędnie konieczny, ani wystarczający jako czynnik różnicowania etnicznego. Przekład Jacek Serwański Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts Irina Ognyanova-Krivoshieva Ustasha nationalism in Croatia during the Second World War (1941-1945) The article is on the Ustasha nationalism as an extreme form of Croatian nationalism in the Independent Stałe of Croatia (ISC) (1941-1945). It reveals the national idea as a basic one in the Ustasha ideology and progranrine, mainly – the liberation of the historic Croatian lands from the Serbian dictatorship, and their unification in the framework of a single national stałe. The article also deals with the role of nationalism in the inter-ethnic relationships in the ISC. Anti-Serbism and anti-Yugoslavism are analyzed as an essence of the Ustasha national ideology and policy. Nazi influence in the introduction of anti-Semitism and racism as a theory and practice in the ISC is also emphasized. Special attention is paid to the causes for the positive attitude of Ustasha authorities towards Muslims. The author also investigates the influence of nationalism on the character of international relations of the ISC, mainly with Germany and Italy in 1941-1945. The commitment of the destiny of the country to the policy of the Axis is revealed as one of the main reasons for the collapse of the Ustasha regime and the Independent state of Croatia at the end of World War II. Key words: nationalism, Ustasha organization, anti-Serbism, Independent State of Croatia Nacjonalizm chorwackich ustaszy w okresie II wojny światowej (1941-1945) Artykuł omawia nacjonalizm chorwackich ustaszy jako skrajną formę nacjonalizmu chorwackiego w Niezależnym Państwie Chorwackim w latach 1941-1945. Autorka ukazuje zasadniczą rolę idei narodowej w ideologii i programie ustaszy, głoszących wyzwolenie historycznych ziem chorwackich spod dyktatury serbskiej i scalenie tych terytoriów w obrębie państwa jednego narodu. Artykuł podejmuje też problem roli nacjonalizmu w stosunkach pomiędzy zamieszkującymi Niezależne Państwo Chorwackie grupami etnicznymi. Analiza uwzględnia tendencje antyserbskie i antyjugosłowiańskie, stojące w centralnym miejscu ideologii narodowej ustaszy i ich polityki. Podkreślony został także wpływ, jaki nacjonalizm wywarł dla zaprowadzenia antysemityzmu i rasizmu, zarówno w teorii, jak i w praktyce funkcjonowania Niezależnego Państwa Chorwackiego. Szczególną uwagę poświęcono przyczynom pozytywnego nastawienia władz ustaszowskich do muzułmanów. Autorka analizuje ponadto, jaki był wpływ nacjonalizmu na charakter stosunków Niezależnego Państwa Chorwackiego z innymi państwami, przede wszystkim z Niemcami i Włochami, w omawianym okresie (1941-1945). Uzależnienie losów Niepodległego Państwa Chorwackiego od polityki państw Osi autorka postrzega jako jeden z głównych powodów upadku reżimu ustaszy i położenia kresu istnienia ich kraju po zakończeniu drugiej wojny światowej. Przekład Jacek Serwański Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts Piot Eberhardt Transformations of the ethnic structure of polish population in the 20th century The paper presents the transformations in the ethnic, language and denominational structures of the population of Poland during the last century. The first census was carried out in independent Poland in 1921. It showed the ethnic and denominational composition of the population inhabiting the newly established Polish state. The subsequent census, carried out in 1931, accounted for two criteria of ethnicity: mother tongue and religious denomination. The results of these two censuses form the basis for interpretation. The author confirms the opinion that in the inter-war period Poland was a country with numerous ethnic minorities, among whom relations were quite differentiated and frequently led to confrontations. The subsequent part of the report concerns the situation during World War II. In this period the political and administrative boundaries were undergoing changes. Polish territories were under the German and Soviet occupation. This brought about various migration movements, in which ethnic criteria played an essential role. Demographic losses affected primarily the Jewish population. This issue is accounted for in a particular manner. The author presents the balances of demographic changes according to various political and territorial settings. The following part of the paper is devoted to the ethnic situation after 1945. Poland became, in its new boundaries, a mono-ethnic country, in which population of Polish nationality and Roman Catholic denomination dominates clearly. The final part presents the results of the census carried out in 2002. The data from this census showed that Poland was at that time inhabited by 38,230,100 people. Of those, 36,983,700 declared Polish nationality. There were 471,500 people who declared a different nationality, that is – merely 1.2% of the total population. Over the 20th century there has been an extremely deep change in the ethnic character of Poland. Resulting from the border changes and political migrations Poland is nowadays a mono-ethnic country, with complete supremacy of the population of Polish nationality, speaking Polish language and belonging to the Roman Catholic Church. Key words: Poland, population in the 20th century, ethnic structure Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts Nikodem Bończa Tomaszewski Peasants into poles: subjectivization as a strategy to nationhood in the polish village at the turn of the 20th century The analysis of a strategy of nationalization of peasants’ national awareness in the Kingdom of Poland proves that the basic role in this process was played by the idea of the man as Subject. Konrad Prószyński, whose views were of pivotal importance for the alphabetization of millions of peasants in the Kingdom, treated education of agrarian population as a tool for their subjectivization. He strongly advocated self study, due mainly to the weakness of village education but also as a means of awakening individualistic and subject values such as self control, self knowledge, growth of individual capacities among the peasants. Prószyński instilled in his readers a belief that individual’s talents and aspirations are what constitutes the value of man. Education is seen here in the ethical categories, in which affirmation of subject ideals was combined with an imperative to recognize dignity of each individual as a Subject. In the author’s opinion the ideal of man as a Subject formed a basis for development of national awareness of peasants. Prószyński and other educational activists from the intelligentsia circles encouraged this ideal among the common people. Key words: peasants, national awareness, education, the Kingdom of Poland Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts Michał Jarnecki Madagascar in polish colonial ideas and plans In the Poland of 1930s, which experienced serious social, economic, political and ethnic problems, one of many ways of solving this situation was overseas immigration. As a result, colonial tendencies and aspirations were enhanced. The colonies could have served to relieve tension in overcrowded villages and to ease the swelling Jewish question. Why Madagascar? The encouragement was initiated by French colonial minister Marcel Moutet who offered such a solution in 1937. This initiative was taken by the Polish government and a special committee under the leadership of Mieczysław Lepecki was sent to the island to inspect it (1937). The outcomes of the committee actions were reflected not only in Poland but also in France, Germany, England, and the U.S. Several publicists acted as colonial experts, e.g. Maria Zakrzewska and Arkady Fiedler. Their concluding comments were less optimistic than those of M. Lepecki. The issue was abandoned when World War II broke out. However, it was still heatedly discussed in the summer of 1939. Key words: Madagascar, Polish colonial plans Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts Stanisław Burdziej Civil religion and national identity in the United States of America This paper discusses the role of religious references in the public speeches of US presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush in the construction of American national identity. The question is tackled in view of the civil religion concept, which is introduced briefly. Speeches of both presidents between 1993 and 2005 were searched for expressions wrapping political discourse in religious language. Such expressions as “one nation, under God” or “God bless America,” as well as the context in which Biblical quotes are evoked, were analyzed in detail. It is argued that all of these religious references serve the purpose of ”sacralizing” – and thus framing – the political discourse in a way that undercuts criticism. Civil religious rhetoric appears to play several different functions: it legitimizes political power, seeks to integrate the nation, creates and maintains national mythology and traditions, provides solace in times of national grief and is used to mobilize the citizens to serve the nation (eg., in the military). However, apart from gloryfing the state and the nation, it may also occasionally provide a high ethical standard of conduct for both politicians and citizens. Key words: American national identity, civil religion concept, civil religion rhetoric Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts Renata Owadowska European identity: negation of national identities or their enrichment The article poses a question: does an European identity exist, and if it does, what elements constitute this notion. It concentrates on such notions, as national identity and culture. From the very outset the idea of a united European culture was a basis on which economic and political community was supposed to originate. Intensified integration processes within the European Union demanded that such elements as national identity: culture, language, religion be redefined. Despite constant emphasis on cultural aspects of unification, the process of shaping European identity will not depend on proclamations or treatises. The decisive influence on its shape will be exerted by the Europeans themselves. They need to find a plane for shared common values (human rights, democracy, legal state). The author postulates a European identity as resulting from an identification with a number of communities – national and continental. Only identity understood in this way will not neglect a national diversity and will not lead to a collapse of individual national cultures. Key words: identity, culture, European Union Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts Marek Moroń Baluchistan – historical background of independence demands The post 1947 era began for South Asia with a division of the British India into two states, India and Pakistan. There were however other state entities which attempted attaining the status of independence in that region at that time. One of such examples was the Khanat of Kalat which may be identified with the statehood aspirations of the Baluchi people. Today when fighting in Baluchistan again comes into the forefront of news from the region of South Asia, the author makes an effort to present how in the past centuries the Baluchi people fared in their attempts not only to survive with a separate national identity but also to create their own state. These matters are described against the scenario of fierce political competion of the European powers in Asia in the 19th and 20th century. Special emphasis is put on the post 1947 period with presentation of the Baluchi uprisings and an attempt to establish how realistic it may be to contemplate the successful result of the Baluchis independence demands in the future. Key words: Baluchistan, history, independence Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts Grzegorz Piotrowski People’s Poland on the plate: culinary reality in communist Poland. A research proposal This article sketches some of the main directions in which research could go, mentioning the most important issues that construct the social reality of those times, mainly regarding food as a research subject. By trying to reconstruct social realities (especially food consumption patterns) more than just a simple ethnographical description is given; questions raised about the relations between everyday life and official state propaganda can also be answered. Furthermore, issues connected with gender studies (such as the position of women in the household hierarchy, their control over food flows and their associated responsibility) and family life and structure are considered. The aim to create the New Man, as defined by communist propaganda, was one of the leading aims of such propaganda, especially in the 1950s. Moving the responsibility for most of the decisions from an individual level to the level of society had also its influence on food, which became a social issue. Because of this, the state tried to take responsibility for feeding people by establishing cheap, subsidised food bars and canteens in schools and workplaces. That situation inevitably lead to confrontation with tradition and traditional images connected to food and its consumption. Key words: communism, Poland, anthropology of food Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts Jacek Falski The Republic of Turkey and the ECHR in Strasbourg and religious symbols In the light of its constitution, the Republic of Turkey is in public-legal categories a secular country. However, due to vitality of Muslim religion practiced by 95% of citizens, Turkey finds it difficult to defend secularism in the way western democracies do. In a recent period both in Turkey and in other European countries (especially in France), a new problem appeared concerning wearing the headscarf, or the hijab. It accumulated political significance as a religious symbol. Thus, specific bans on wearing the hijab were introduced in Turkey. One of them, introduced by the University in Istambul, resulted in filing a lawsuit against Turkey before the Strasbourg-based European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) (Layla Shain v. Turkey). The Court decided that there was no human rights violation (Convention art. 9), and the University acted properly and within means available in a democratic society. Key words: secular country, Islam, religious symbols, the hijab Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts Maciej J. Dudziak Identity and multiculturalism: from disintegration to integration of the community The aim of this article is to trace the evolution of traditional notions of identity and multiculturalism within a broad frame of the European culture organized around the national state. The author claims that traditional communities undergo disintegration and quasi-communities evolve as a consequence of this process. Following the sociologist Zygmunt Bauman and his categories of mobile identities in the postmodern world, the author suggests that neotribes can be seen as one of possible ways of how to organize the modern socio-cultural world, as a counterbalance to a traditional juxtaposition: society vs. community. Key words: society, community, national state, multiculturalism, invented tradition