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Lifestyle and health behaviour - review of literature – p.II
(Zdrowie i czynniki determinujące zdrowie- przegląd piśmiennictwa,
cz. II)
B Stawarz 1,A, D, F, M Sulima 2, B, M Lewicka 2, C, I Brukwicka 1, E, H Wiktor 2, B
Abstract – In literature, one can find many definitions of lifestyle and health behaviour which consider them in a broader or
narrower sense. Lifestyle is the most important factor in determining human health. It is constituted by certain behaviour,
attitude and belief types which are manifested in one’s everyday situations. Health behaviours are behaviours considered
from the human viewpoint and of relevance to people. They are
defined as actions taken and implemented by people that directly or indirectly promote or prejudice the normative standards of physical and mental health. They are formed by the
direct interaction with the social environment. Selection of
health behaviour depends largely on each individual and is
based in his or her knowledge and experience, practice and
motivation.
Key words - lifestyle, health behaviour, health.
Streszczenie – W piśmiennictwie można znaleźć wiele definicji
stylu życia i zachowań zdrowotnych, ujmujących je w szerszym
lub węższym znaczeniu. Styl życia jest najistotniejszym czynnikiem determinującym zdrowie człowieka. Stanowią go określone zespoły zachowań, nastawień, przekonań ujawniające się
u danego człowieka w doświadczanych przez niego sytuacjach
życia codziennego. Zachowania zdrowotne są zachowaniami
rozpatrywanymi z punktu widzenia i znaczenia dla człowieka,
definiuje się je jakoczynności podejmowane i realizowane
przez ludzi, które w sposób bezpośredni lub pośredni sprzyjają
lub szkodzą normatywnym standardom zdrowia fizycznego i
psychicznego. Formują się one poprzez interakcję z bezpośrednim otoczeniem społecznym. Wybór zachowań zdrowotnych
zależy w dużej mierze od każdego człowieka, od jego wiedzy i
doświadczeń, wzorców oraz motywacji.
Słowa kluczowe - styl życia, zachowania zdrowotne, zdrowie.
Author Affiliations:
1. Institute of Health Protection, The Bronisław Markiewicz
State Higher School of Technology and Economics in
Jarosław
2. Department of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Obstetrical Gynaecological Nursing, Faculty of Nursing and Health
Sciences, Medical University of Lublin.
Authors’ contributions to the article:
A. The idea and the planning of the study
B. Gathering and listing data
C. The data analysis and interpretation
D. Writing the article
E. Critical review of the article
F. Final approval of the article
Correspondence to:
Barbara Stawarz, MD, PhD, Ostrów 109, PL-37-550 Radymno,
Poland; e-mail [email protected]
I. INTRODUCTION
mong the many progressive cultural and moral
changes one should not forget that the primary task
of a human being is a healthy life, which shapes
every aspect of human behaviour [1]. Currently, despite
the growing threat of malicious actions brought by civilisation, the fashion for healthy lifestyle is promoted [1,2].
The relationship between the way of life and human
health has been first observed long ago; the development
of interest in healthy lifestyle took place in the second
half of the twentieth century - a period known as the
Second Revolution of health or the age of lifestyle. This
is reflected in the guidelines of the World Health Organization and the European Union, which recommended the
assessment of the health behaviour of people [3].
A
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Health is a fundamental value of every human being
conditioning happy life. One of the activities that contribute to one’s health and increase the effectiveness of
control over one’s own health is the implementation of
appropriate health behaviour and the change in the way
of thinking about health [4,5]. Also important is the systematic study on the self-assessment of health status of
Poles as a source of information on the living conditions
and their impact on human health behaviour [6].
II. LIFESTYLE AND HEALTH BEHAVIOURREVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Health care is the biggest challenge for the modern
world. The right to health and health care is an important
value for every man [7,8]. Alongside determinants such
as: genetic predisposition, the availability and quality of
medical care or psychosocial characteristics of the environment, an important role is attributed to lifestyle,
which includes health-related behaviour known as health
behaviour, attitudes and philosophy of human life [9,10,
11,12].
The components of lifestyle are health behaviours,
which determine health, and in the event of illness affect
the course and outcome of treatment [13,14,15].
In literature, one can find many definitions of health
behaviour and lifestyle which consider them in a broader
or narrower sense [16]. Lifestyle and health behaviour
determine human health to a highest degree [17,18,19].
The aim of health behaviour is to improve the health and
control it [9,20].
Health behaviours are formed in childhood and youth
under the influence of many factors and formulas provided by the family, school and society. They are also subject to modifications throughout life [1,10,21,22].
According to the World Health Organization, lifestyle
“...is a way of life resulting from the interaction of man
and the conditions in which life and individual patterns
of behaviour that have been set by the socio-cultural and
personal traits "[23].
Lifestyle behaviours are defined sets of behaviours, attitudes, beliefs which manifest themselves in the everyday situations experienced by a human being [22,24,25].
In psychology, they are defined as a set of typical personality traits of the specific behaviours and reactions
occurring in different situations in life. Sociological definition refers to lifestyle as the the scope and forms of
everyday behaviour of individuals or groups that are specific for their social location [26,27].
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Lifestyle is defined as a set of behaviours, attitudes
and general philosophy of life of an individual or a
group. The set is dependent on environment, social and
cultural norms in which man lives and the community to
which he belongs, and also on personal beliefs and
adopted a system of values [23,28].
Lifestyle is specific to an individual or collective,
formed in the process of socialization as well as interaction in living conditions and individual patterns of behaviour and determined by the socio-cultural and personal
characteristics of individuals [29,30].
Lifestyle is a way of human perception and response to
the surrounding reality, which corresponds with one’s
nature, tastes and needs. It can also be defined as a set of
values, ideas, interests and human behaviour [31].
Lifestyle that influences health in a favourable manner
is characterized by daily, permanent and repetitive
knowledge-based behaviour which affects health positively or negatively [21].
Siciński defined lifestyle as a scope and forms of everyday behaviour of individuals or groups that is specific
for their social location [32].
According to Woynarowska, lifestyle is composed of
attitudes, behaviours and general philosophy of life. It
depends on the environment, social and cultural norms in
which one is living, the community to which one belongs
as well as on personal beliefs, attitudes, value systems
and on general economic, political and organizational
structure of society [33].
With the existing differences in defining health behaviours, the authors point out that there is a common component of health behaviour, namely a conscious choice of
a person to behave in a particular manner and not in the
other, which might have a positive or negative influence
on health [34].
Łuczyńska argues that 'health behaviours are actions
undertaken by individuals for health reasons or those that
have a proven impact on health. The author divides
health behaviour into health-promoting behaviour that
promote health and preventive behaviour (behaviour
aimed at the detection of a disease) [35].
A broad approach to this problem was proposed by
Gochman, according to which health behaviour is a personal attribute such as learned habits, activities, beliefs,
expectations, motives and personality traits related to the
preservation of health - its improvement or recovery
[16].
According to Heszen-Niejodek, health behaviour is
defined as any form of human activity focused on health.
The author indicates that the objectives of health behaviour undertaken by the healthy and the sick are different;
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while the healthy endeavour to expand or maintain health
resources, the aim of the sick is the restoration of health
[36].
Bond defines health behaviour as a lifestyle, which
consists of: a mental component responsible for health
and a positive attitude, which includes the self-control of
the body, and a physical component, which consists of a
healthy diet, physical activity and at least 7 hours of
sleep a day. The author draws attention to the need for
treating a healthy lifestyle as a habit throughout life rather than a method used temporarily because of a disease
[37].
According to Kawczyński-Butrym, lifestyle is a specific strategy for life, which includes, among others, health
behaviours, which are diverse in their scope, forms and
motivations (assigning them to a particular matter, e.g.
health) [38].
According to Puchalski, health behaviours are actions
selected by the observer and / or operator that, on the
basis of a system of knowledge (beliefs, social ideology),
remain in a significant relationship with health recorded
in the sense set out in such a system [39].
Health behaviours are highly susceptible to modifications and control factors related to the health of individuals and populations [40,41]. Health behaviours are intentional actions taken to restore, maintain or improve
health [42].
Health behaviours are divided into positive and negative ones. Positive behaviour (beneficial in terms of
health) is aimed at strengthening health and preventing
disease from occurring. Positive health behaviours include: physical activity, avoidance of stimulants, adequate sleep, proper nutrition and ability to cope with
stress [10,43,44,45].
Negative behaviours (related to poor health), which
are harmful to health, lead to the origins of a disease.
Negative health behaviours include: addiction associated
with smoking, alcohol abuse, inclination towards risky
behaviour, inability to cope with stress and resolve conflicts, aggression and violence [10,44,45,46,47].
Tobias-Adamczyk claimed that the health behaviours
that make up a healthy lifestyle include: refraining from
smoking, moderate alcohol consumption, sleeping 7-8
hours a night on a daily basis, regular exercise, maintaining proper body weight, eating breakfast regularly and
avoiding snacks [48].
According to Wardle J. and Steptoe A., five classes of
health behaviours can be distinguished. They are: avoiding stimulants (smoking, drinking alcohol), positive
health practices (exercise, adequate duration of sleep, use
sunscreen when sunbathing, brushing one’s teeth fre-
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quently), eating habits (intake of meat, fruit, salt, coffee,
fats containing cholesterol, the number of meals a day,
regular breakfast, avoiding snacks, maintaining a certain
diet), driving safely (use of safety belts, driving at a safe
speed, refraining from driving under the influence of
alcohol) and highly preventive behaviour (regular visits
to a doctor and a dentist, regular monitoring of blood
pressure, breast and testicular self-examination, professional examination of the breast and testicular Pap tests)
[48].
The American Medical Association recommends the use
of the 6 basic principles of a healthy lifestyle:
 if you smoke, you have to quit;
 if you drink alcohol, you drink it moderately, do not
drink if you are pregnant, you direct a car or operating a machine;
 find exercises that are fun, such as: walking or
swimming; do them at least 5 times a week for 30
minutes each day;
 eat a variety of natural products (grains, fresh vegetables), have moderation
 in the consumption of fats;
 do not allow to be overweight (if you are overweight, follow a weight loss diet and exercise);
 do regular prophylactic exercises [49,50].
Health behaviours are the result of people’s attitudes towards health, especially their sense of responsibility for their own health and the health of responsibility
for others [51]. Health behaviours include:
 behaviours undertaken by a healthy person in order
to achieve a better level of health;
 preventive behaviour - all human actions considered
healthy undertaken to prevent disease or detect
presymptomatic disease;
 behaviour of persons considered to be healthy, belonging to the group of high-risk or exposed to a
higher than average risk individuals (behaviours
aimed at preventing the effects of these risks);
 behaviour related to securing biological continuity
(reproductive behaviour);
 behaviour undertaken in order to secure, maintain or
improve the health of a foetus or a child, for
which one is responsible;
 behaviour aimed at improving the environment [48].
Majchrowska [52] described a typology of health behaviour developed by M. Ogryzko-Wiewiórkowska:
1. Oriented towards one’s health condition:
 maintain the health of healthy people;
 maintain the health of the sick.
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Majchrowska [52] also offered the following extended
division of health behaviour proposed by Kasl and Cobb:
 preservation of health - including activities performed by the healthy, which are aimed at
strengthening both health and activities aimed at
early detection or prevention of disease. These are
the behaviours that contribute to the deterioration
or loss of health;
 behaviour during illness - the actions taken by a
person who, when feeling sick, may seek treatment or wait until symptoms disappear in time;
 behaviour as a sick person – taken up by people
who experience clear disease symptoms and seek
to remove them.
2. Considering the importance of the body:
 bio-positive behaviour (enhancing health);
 maintain bio-negative (detrimental to health).
3. Oriented towards the stimulating factor:
 behaviour stimulated by medical institutions - both
intentional (vaccinations), as well as displayed
by the very existence of medical facilities designed for people to use them;
 behaviour inspired by the culture (resulting from the
patterns of social life) typical of a society or
social group behaviour patterns.
4. Oriented towards the subject of action:
 Individual behaviour (individual);
 collective behaviour (typical for specific groups or
communities, implemented not always consciously by all its members).
5. Oriented towards one’s knowledge of medicine:
 health behaviour of laymen;
 health behaviour of professionals.
6. Oriented towards the relation with the content of an
action:
 behaviour directly addressed to an individual or a
group (e.g. vaccinations);
 indirectly oriented towards the preservation of
health (e.g. water chlorination, iodination of
salt).
L. Kolbe worked out a typology of health behaviour
using self-developed criteria. The focus of the author was
the behaviour aimed at prophylaxis, health promotion
and treatment. Classification is an illustration of expanding its range of health behaviours. It includes, among
others:
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 every activity of a person claiming to be healthy undertaken in order to achieve a higher level of
health (wellness behaviour);
 every activity of a person claiming to be healthy undertaken to prevent a disease or detect it early
(preventive health behaviour);
 every activity of a person claiming to be healthy that
is subject to greater than average risk, undertaken
in order to prevent the disease or prevent its effects through measures aimed at early detection
(at-risk behaviour);
 every activity of a person who is considered to be
sick undertaken in order to determine one’s state
of health and get help (illness behaviour);
 every activity of a person claiming to be sick undertaken in order to improve one’s condition with
minimal help from a doctor or a therapist and insignificant dependence on the environment (selfcare behaviour);
 every activity of a person claiming to be sick undertaken in order to regain health with considerable
dependence on the help of other people, especially medical professionals (sick-role behaviour);
 every activity of a person aiming to become pregnant and concerned about the normal course of
the pregnancy (reproductive behaviour);
 each of the first six types of behaviour undertaken
in order to maintain or improve the health of a
foetus or a child, for which the entity is responsible (health parenting behaviour);
 any activity undertaken by an individual or by a
group which involves a variety of institutions, legal, economic resources, aimed at transforming
determinants of health [53].
The changes that are taking place in health care emphasize the each person's role in maintaining and strengthening their health. This approach involves the strengthening
of the position of a holistic model of health; it also brings
attention to health behaviour as behavioural determinants
of health [16].
Nowadays conscious choice is appreciated more than
ever as people are dependent on those close to them
within their lifetimes. The ongoing interactions between
family, friends and colleagues who make up the so-called
a social network have a large impact on human health
[54,55].
Most people begin to take care of health when they
have already lost it. What is worrying is that this type of
attitude is usually passed on by parents to their children.
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The crucial importance with reference to health determinants is attributed to the conduct of individuals and entire
populations. Therefore, behaviour and health awareness
(mainly, the strategies of their development) are treated
as a crucial health-related problems of societies
[56,57,58].
There is a need to recognize the factors responsible for
making decisions in the field of health. Most models of
health behaviour determinants are derived from psychology; specialists of the discipline are looking for sources
of human behaviour in health primarily in the sense of its
effectiveness, subjectivity and coherence [58,59].
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