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12 (4) 2013
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Prof. dr hab. Danuta Borkowska (Zamość)
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Prof. dr. hab. Janusz Falkowski (Olsztyn)
Prof. dr hab. Andrzej Gugołek (Olsztyn)
Prof. dr hab. Grażyna Jeżewska-Witkowska (Lublin)
Prof. dr hab. Valentin Katsarov (Bułgaria)
Prof. dr hab. Barbara Klocek (Siedlce)
Prof. dr hab. Helena Kontecka (Poznań)
Prof. dr hab. Maria Kulisa (Kraków)
Prof. dr hab. Stanisław Kubacki (Bydgoszcz)
Prof. dr hab. Jan Mikołajczak (Bydgoszcz)
Prof. dr hab. Janina Pogorzelska (Olsztyn)
Prof. dr hab. Piotr Przysiecki (Leszno)
Prof. dr hab. Anna Rekiel (Warszawa)
Prof. dr hab. Anna Sawa (Bydgoszcz)
Prof. dr. hab. Stanisław Socha (Siedlce)
Prof. dr hab. Anna Stachurska (Lubiln)
Prof. dr hab. Zofia Tarasewicz (Szczecin)
Prof. dr hab. Jerzy Wójcik (Szczecin)
Dr hab. Marek Babicz, prof. nadzw. (Lublin)
Dr hab. Maria Bogdzińska, prof. nadzw. (Bydgoszcz)
Dr hab. Ewa Dzika, prof. nadzw. (Olsztyn)
Dr hab. Dariusz Kokoszyński, prof. nadzw. (Bydgoszcz)
Dr hab. Zenon Nogalski, prof. nadzw. (Olsztyn)
Dr hab. Bożena Szejniuk, prof. nadzw. (Bydgoszcz)
Dr hab. Brygida Ślaska, prof. nadzw. (Lublin)
Dr hab. Bartłomiej Bartyzel (Warszawa)
Dr hab. Angelika Cieśla (Szczecin)
Dr hab. Wojciech Kruszyński (Wrocław)
Dr hab. Danuta Majewska (Szczecin)
Dr hab. Wanda Milewska (Olsztyn)
Dr hab. Paweł Nawrotek (Szczecin)
Dr hab. Arkadiusz Pietruszka (Szczecin)
Dr hab. Bogumiła Pilarczyk (Szczecin)
Dr hab. Piotr Sablik (Szczecin)
Dr n. wet. Michał Skibniewski (Warszawa)
Składam serdeczne podziękowania
za wykonanie recenzji publikacji zgłoszonych w 2013 roku
do Acta Scientiarum Polonorum Zootechnica
Redaktor
Acta Scientiarum Polonorum
Zootechnica
Acta Sci. Pol., Zootechnica 12 (4) 2013, 5–16
CORRELATION OF THE TRAITS OF FUR FROM
DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BODY IN ARCTIC
FOXES (ALOPEX LAGOPUS L.)
Ryszard Cholewa1 , Jerzy Gedymin1 , Stanisław Socha2
1 Poznań
2 Siedlce
University of Life Sciences, Poland
University of Natural Sciences and Humanities, Poland
Abstract. The aim of the study was to investigate into the possibility of evaluating
arctic fox fur basing on the correlation of laboratory measurements of hairs collected
from various parts of the coat. The material involved samples of prime fur hairs of
20 two-year-old females of the blue arctic fox, collected at the end of January. The
samples were cut by the skin at six places of the body, namely: the head (between the
ears), back (in the middle between the tail base and the neck base), the side (below
the place of sampling located on the back), belly (mid between the base of the front
limbs and the vulva), the tail (in the middle of the dorsal side), as well as the shank.
The samples were subjected to macro- and microscopic measurements. The results
indicate that fur coat of arctic foxes is more dense, longer, and usually more intensely
colored on the back, as compared to the belly. The hairs on the head and the limbs are
much shorter and contain more awn hairs. The results reveal a very weak correlation of
the morphological fur characteristics between different parts of the body. It has been
found that it is impossible to objectively evaluate the basic structural characteristics
and the dark tops of hairs in the arctic fox on the basis of a sample of hair from a single
part of the body.
Key words: arctic fox, hair coat, structural and morphological characteristics
of hairs, variability
INTRODUCTION
Evaluation of a fur-bearer pelt is based on sensory rating of the characteristics,
i.e. by sight and touch. Despite a high selectivity of human senses, it is merely
Corresponding author – Adres do korespondencji: prof. dr hab. Ryszard Cholewa, Poznań
University of Life Sciences, Department of Small Mammals Breeding and Animal Origin Materials,
Słoneczna 1, 62-002 Suchy Las, Złotniki, Poland, e-mail: [email protected]
6
R. Cholewa et al.
a subjective method. Measurements have so far involved only the size (length) of
the pelt and the color of the fur.
A more objective assessment of the individual characteristics of the structure
and color of the coat, through measurements, is also possible [Gedymin et al.
1973, Cholewa, Gedymin 1974], which however is combined with taking samples
of hair and can lead to a damage of the fur. Not all areas of the pelt are of equal
value in terms of furriery; for example, the fur of the arctic fox on the head, legs,
and belly is far less valuable than that on the sides, back, neck, thighs, or even on
the tail. A minor damage resulting from hair sample collections from the peripheral parts of the body should not exert a major impact on the overall value of the
pelt. In the case of a strong association (correlation) between the characteristics of
the fur located on the peripheral regions and of that located on the most valuable
parts of the pelt, the sensory evaluation could be supplemented by measuring the
samples, thus carried out in an objective way. Applying such a method of assessment would primarily have a cognitive importance, showing the harmony of fur
structure as a basis of the coat of an animal; it should also provide information
for selection-purposes assessment a live fox, when the evaluation is much more
difficult than in the case of a raw pelt.
The aim of the study was to get an insight into the feasibility of arctic fox
coat evaluation based on the correlation between laboratory measurements of hair
samples collected from various parts of the body.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The material was represented by samples of prime hair coat collected at the
end of January from 20 two-year-old females of blue arctic foxes. The samples,
cut by the skin with scissors, were collected from the following six places of the
body:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Head (between ears),
Back (mid between tail base and neck base),
Side (below the place of the back sample collection),
Belly (mid between the base of frontal legs and the vulva),
Tail (middle of the dorsal side),
Shank (middle of the external side).
The samples were subjected to macro- and microscopic measurements, which
led to specifying the following characteristics:
1. Length of the hair (after straightening),
2. Height of the hair (distance between the apex and the base, measured in
hair’s natural state),
3. Length of the apical dark band,
Acta Sci. Pol.
Correlation of the traits of fur in arctic foxes . . .
7
4. Thickness of the hair in its middle,
5. Thickness of the hair core in its middle,
6. Percentage composition of four hair types (guard, awn, transitional, and
down hairs).
The length of the hairs and color bands were measured using a ruler with
precision to 1 mm, whereas the thickness of the hair and its core was measured
under a microscope (VEB Carl Zeiss) with precision to 1.8 µm. The above-listed
measurements allowed calculating the following indices:
1. Height-to-length ratio of the hair (%), describing hair undulation and corrugation,
2. The ratio of dark band length to the length of the hair (%), a characteristic
of the so called voile,
3. The ratio of the core thickness to the hair thickness (%),
4. The ratio of the thickness in microns of the hair to its length in mm (coefficient of hair softness).
All above-listed properties were measured and calculated for each of the four
hair types, which had been distinguished in relation to structure and shape according to Toldt [1935]. These four types of hairs are: down, transitional, awn, and
guard hairs.
The arithmetic means were used to estimate correlations between individual
places using the graphical methods with correlation grids. The dependences visible on the grid were ranked from 0 to 3 points, which has the following meaning:
0
1
2
3
‒
‒
‒
‒
no correlation (r)
r ≤ 0.20
0.20 ˂ r ˂ 0.45
0.45 ≤ r
A minus sign (–) was added to negative values. The correlation was estimated
for 552 juxtapositions of paired parts of the body.
RESULTS
Arithmetic means of the characteristics listed in the previous section are presented in Table 1.
Length. The longest coat hairs, i.e. guard and awn hairs, were found on the
side, whereas the hairs of the underfur, transitional and down hairs, were roughly
equal on the side and tail, although longer than those found on the other parts of
the body. The shortest hairs of all four types were found on the peripheral parts,
i.e. on the head and the shank; only down hairs were of similar length on the belly.
Zootechnica 12 (4) 2013
8
R. Cholewa et al.
Table 1. Arctic fox coat characteristics (͞x, SD)
Tabela 1. Cechy okrywy włosowej lisa polarnego (͞x, SD)
Characteristic
Cecha
1. Length, mm
Długość, mm
2. Height, mm
Wysokość, mm
3. Height-to-length ratio, %
Wysokość w % długości
4. Color band length, mm
Długość pasa barwnego, mm
5. Color band length to hair
length, %
Długość pasa barwnego
w % długości włosa
6. Hair thickness, μm
Grubość włosa, μm
7. Core thickness, μm
Grubość rdzenia, μm
8. Core thickness to hair
thickness, %
Grubość rdzenia w %
gruości włosa, μm
9. Softness coefficient
Współczynnik miękkości
10. Percentage contribution to
sample, %
Udział w próbce, %
Place of sample collection
Miejsce pobrania próbek
Head
Back
Side
Belly
Tail
Ciemię
Grzbiet
Bok
Brzuch
Ogon
͞x
SD
͞x
SD
͞x
SD
͞x
SD
͞x
SD
Guard hairs
Włosy przewodnie
Shank
Podbudzie
͞x
SD
42.5
3.7
67.8
7.8
76.1
6.4
61.6
6.5
64.8 10.9
51.2
7.2
40.0
3.2
63.1
7.2
64.8
9.4
55.2
6.4
63.8 10.5
48.8
7.1
98.5
95.3
94.1
10.8
93.1
2.0
15.9
85.3
2.8
15.6
89.7
4.4
25.7
23.6
60.5 17.5
64.3
8.4
70.0
8.9
67.6
41.6
44.0
5.6
45.5
7.3
41.7
3.9
20.8
11.0
1.8
18.2
7.5
3.6
12.2
4.4
11.6
23.8
7.3
99.3 17.6
65.8
8.2
6.5
77.2 17.8
42.6
7.4
68.7
68.3
64.9
61.5
77.3
64.0
1.4
0.9
0.9
1.1
1.6
1.4
2.2
0.9
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.6
Awn hairs
Włosy ościste
1. Length, mm
Długość, mm
2. Height, mm
Wysokość, mm
length, %
36.2
3.7
54.8
5.7
65.2
3.6
50.5
8.1
56.2
9.8
33.5
5.7
33.2
3.6
47.9
5.2
51.2
7.1
46.2
7.1
53.8
9.2
31.6
5.5
92.1
5.7
88.4
1.8
15.8
6.7
78.4
1.2
12.1
6.3
91.7
2.2
10.0
7.0
95.8
2.4
13.8
5.1
94.3
1.6
9.3
7.9
2.7
23.6
41.6
5.8
37.1
4.8
41.2
5.6
43.9
7.4
87.5
11.1
47.4
7.0
26.8
4.4
25.9
3.7
26.6
4.2
25.7
5.5
63.2
11.6
30.7
5.1
Acta Sci. Pol.
9
Table 1. Arctic fox coat characteristics (͞x, SD) – continued
Tabela 1. Cechy okrywy włosowej lisa polarnego (͞x, SD) – ciąg dalszy
Characteristic
Cecha
thickness, %
grubości włosa, μm
sample, %
Head
Ciemię
͞x
SD
Back
Side
Belly
Tail
Grzbiet
Bok
Brzuch
Ogon
͞x
SD
͞x
SD
͞x
SD
x͞
SD
Shank
Podbudzie
͞x
SD
64.4
66.0
64.3
58.2
77.1
65.0
1.1
0.7
0.6
0.9
1.5
1.4
11.1
6.5
4.3
6.2
2.9
4.2
Transitional hairs
Włosy przejściowe
1. Length, mm
Długość, mm
2. Height, mm
Wysokość, mm
length, %
thickness, %
Grubość rdzenia
w % grubości włosa, μm
sample, %
28.9
3.2
48.9
4.0
56.6 4.7
38.5
4.2
56.8
6.3
25.3
6.2
26.4
3.1
40.8
3.8
41.9 4.2
32.6
1.2
52.4
6.2
23.1
4.8
84.8
90.9
84.5
74.4
0
0
2.8
0
0
4.9
9.1
1.1
3.6
92.2
0.6
3.2
91.3
0.9
5.6
7.9
2.2
13.8
18.8
1.6
20.1
2.1
26.8 4.2
26.5
4.1
51.8
4.7
27.2
5.5
11.7
1.5
16.6
1.7
16.7 2.3
14.6
2.5
37.6
4.8
16.4
3.9
60.6
72.5
62.7
55.2
72.5
59.8
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
27.7
17.0
14.1
9.5
5.8
6.9
Down hairs
Włosy puchowe
1. Length, mm
21.3
Długość, mm
2. Height, mm
17.9
Wysokość, mm
83.6
0
2.0
38.3
3.7
44.6 4.3
20.1
2.9
45.1
4.7
19.2
4.2
2.3
30.4
2.7
25.7 3.5
14.1
2.2
35.7
4.2
16.7
3.5
78.5
57.5
69.9
79.0
87.0
0
0
0
0
0
10
R. Cholewa et al.
Table 1. Arctic fox coat characteristics (͞x, SD) – continued
Tabela 1. Cechy okrywy włosowej lisa polarnego (͞x, SD) – ciąg dalszy
Characteristic
Cecha
length, %
thickness, %
Grubość rdzenia
w % grubości włosa, μm
sample, %
Head
Ciemię
͞x
SD
Back
Side
Belly
Tail
Grzbiet
Bok
Brzuch
Ogon
͞x
SD
͞x
SD
͞x
SD
x͞
SD
0
0
0
0
0
Shank
Podbudzie
͞x
SD
0
13.2 0.7
12.9
0.8
17.0 0.6
16.3 1.0
26.6
3.2
15.4
1.5
8.0
8.9
0.7
10.6 0.9
9.5
17.5
2.7
9.0
1.4
0.7
0.6
59.4
69.0
62.2
58.6
66.4
58.5
0.6
0.3
0.4
0.8
0.6
0.8
59.0
75.6
81.3
84.0
90.1
88.3
Height. The highest coat hairs were found on the side, tail, and back, whereas
highest underfur hais were found on the tail. The lowest and the shortest coat hairs
were found on the head and the shank, while down hairs – on the belly.
Height-to-length ratio. The least wavy or corrugated hairs, i.e. showing the
highest indices, were found on the tail and the peripheral regions of the body. The
lowest value of this characteristic in all hair types was observed on the side.
Dark band length. Dark topical bands were present on guard and awn hairs,
less frequent on transitional hairs, and completely absent from the hairs of the
head and the back. The down hairs lacked this characteristic altogether. The longest dark bands on hairs were found on the back and the shank, the shortest – on
the other hand – on the tail.
Dark band length to hair length ratio. The longest dark band in relation to
hair length (%) was found in the samples collected on the shank, followed by the
head. The shortest, on the other hand, was found on the side and the back.
Hair thickness. The thickest hairs within all the studied types were found
on the tail, being much thicker as compared to the other parts of the fox’s body,
which in terms of this characteristic differed only slightly from one another. The
thinnest hairs were found on the head and – in the case of transitional and awn
hairs – also on the back.
Acta Sci. Pol.
11
Table 2. Analysis of correlation in the characteristics between the body parts
Tabela 2. Analiza zależności cech między okolicami ciała
No.
Lp.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Characteristics
Cechy
Hair type
G B V O P B V O P V O P O P P
Typ włosa
C C C C C G G G G B B B V V O
α
–1 +1 0 +2 0 +1 0 0 0 0 –1 0 0 0 0
β
0 0 0 +1 0 +1 0 –1 0 0 0 +1 0 0 +1
Hair length, mm
γ
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 –1 0 0 0 +1 0 0 0
Długość włosa, mm
δ
0 0 0 0 +1 +2 0 –1 0 +2 0 0 –1 0 0
Σ
–1 +1 0 +3 +1 +4 0 –3 0 +2 –1 +1 –1 0 +1
5.
α
–1 0 –1 +2 +1 +1 +1 0 +1 +1 +1 +1 –2 0 +2
6.
β
0 0 –1 +1 +1 0 0 0 +1 0 +1 0 0 0 +2
Hair height, mm
7.
γ
0 0 0 +1 –1 0 0 0 0 +1 0 +1 0 +1 +1
Wysokość włosa, mm
8.
δ
+1 0 0 –1 +2 –1 0 –1 0 +1 +1 0 0 0 0
Σ
0 0 –2 +3 +3 0 +1 –1 +2 +3 +3 +2 –2 +1 +5
9.
α
0 0 0 +2 –1 +1 +1 –1 0 0 +1 0 0 +2 0
10.
β
+2 +1 0 +2 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +2 0 0 +2 0 0
Hair height–to–length, %
11.
γ
0 0 0 +1 0 0 +1 +1 +1 +2 +2 +1 0 +2 0
12.
δ
0 +1 0 0 0 +1 0 0 0 +2 +1 0 +1 0 –1
Σ
+2 +2 0 +5 0 +3 +3 +1 +2 +6 +4 +1 +3 +4 –1
13.
α
+1 –2 +1 +1 0 –2 –2 –1 +1 +1 –1 0 +1 0 0
14. Length of color band, mm
β
0 0 +1 +2 0 0 +1 –1 +1 0 +1 +2 +2 +2 +1
15. Długość pasa barwnego, mm
γ
– – – – – – – – – +1 +2 +2 +1 0 +1
Σ
+1 –2 +2 +3 0 –2 –1 –2 +2 +2 +2 +4 +4 +2 +2
16. Length of color band to hair
α
+1 –2 +1 0 0 0 –1 0 0 0 0 0 0 +1 –1
17. length, %
β
0 –1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 –1 0 +2 0 0
18. Długość pasa barwnego w %
γ
– – – – – – – – – 0 +1 +1 +1 0 0
długości włosa
Σ
+1 –2 +1 0 0 0 –1 0 0 0 0 +1 +3 +1 –1
19.
α
+1 –1 –1 –2 +1 –1 –2 –1 0 +1 –1 +2 0 –1 –1
20.
β
0 –2 –1 –1 0 +1 0 –1 0 +2 –1 –1 0 –1 –1
Hair thickness, μm
21.
γ
+1 –1 –1 0 +1 0 +1 +1 –2 +2 0 –1 0 –1 +1
22.
δ
0 +1 0 0 –1 0 +1 –1 –1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Σ
+2 –3 –3 –3 +1 0 0 –2 –3 +5 –2 0 0 –3 –1
23.
α
+1 –2 +1 –1 0 –2 –2 –1 –1 +1 0 +2 +1 –1 –1
24.
β
+1 –2 0 –1 0 +1 0 –1 –1 +1 –1 –1 –1 0 0
Core thickness, μm
25.
γ
0 –2 –1 +1 +2 0 –2 0 –1 +2 0 0 +1 –1 +1
26.
δ
0 –1 0 0 –1 0 0 –2 –2 +2 0 +1 0 0 +1
Σ
+2 –7 0 –1 +1 –1 –1 –4 –5 +6 –1 +2 +1 –2 +1
27.
α
0 –1 0 0 –1 +1 +1 +1 –1 +2 +1 +1 +2 0 0
Core thickness to hair
28.
β
+2 +1 +1 0 0 0 +1 –1 0 +1 –1 0 +2 +2 +1
thickness, %
29.
γ
+1 +1 0 +1 +1 +1 0 +1 +1 +1 +3 +3 0 0 +3
30.
δ
0 0 +1 +2 0 0 +1 0 –1 0 0 +1 +1 0 0
grubości włosa
Σ
+3 +1 +2 +3 0 +2 +3 +1 –1 +4 +3 +5 +5 +2 +4
31.
α
0 –1 –1 0 +1 0 0 0 0 +1 0 0 0 0 0
32.
β
0 –1 0 +1 +2 +1 0 0 0 +1 –1 +1 0 –1 0
Softness index
33.
γ
0 0 –2 +1 0 0 0 0 0 +1 +1 0 –1 –1 +1
34.
δ
0 0 0 0 +1 0 0 0 0 +1 +1 +2 +2 0 0
Σ
0 –2 –3 +2 +4 +1 0 0 0 +4 –1 +3 +1 –2 +1
35.
α
0 –1 0 +2 0 0 0 0 +1 –1 +1 –1 –1 –1 0
Morphological percentage
36.
β
0 0 0 +1 +2 0 0 0 0 +1 0 0 +1 0 0
composition
37.
γ
+1 0 0 +1 0 +1 0 +1 –1 0 –1 0 0 0 0
Morfologiczny skład
38.
δ
0 +1 +1 +1 0 +1 +1 0 –1 +1 –1 –1 0 –1 0
procentowy
Σ
+1 0 +1 +5 +2 +2 +1 +1 –1 +1 –1 –2 0 –2 0
G – Back; B – Side; V – Belly; O – Tail; C – Head; P – Shank; α – Guard hairs; β – Awn hairs; γ – Transitional
hairs; δ – Down hairs.
G – grzbiet; B – bok; V – brzuch; O – ogon; C – ciemię; P – podudzie; α – włosy przewodnie; β – włosy
ościste; γ – włosy przejściowe; δ – włosy puchowe.
12
R. Cholewa et al.
Core thickness. The pattern of this characteristic was found similar to that
of hair thickness, i.e. the hairs on the tail were characterized by the thickest core,
deviating even more than hair thickness on the other parts of the body. The thinnest
core was measured in the hairs on the head.
Core thickness to hair thickness ratio. This trait was a characteristic of the
core volume within the hair. Within the guard hairs, this ratio was the highest in
the samples collected from the tail, in the transitional hairs it was equal for the tail
and the back, whereas for the down hairs, the core was most bulky on the back
followed by the tail.
Hair thickness to hair length ratio. The index of softness was highest for
the guard hairs on the tail, head, and shank, whereas for the transitional and down
hairs – on the shank, tail and belly. The softest hairs, i.e. those of the lowest ratio,
were the hairs on the back and the side.
Morphological composition of the coat. This characteristic was expressed
as a percentage composition of the four hair types. The most guard hairs were present on the head, back, and belly, whereas the underfur hairs were most abundant
in the samples taken from the tail and the shank.
Correlations. The correlation of the individual hair characteristics between
the studied parts of the body turned out to be negligible. The degree of dependence resulting from correlational grid diagrams was estimated in points: 0, 1, 2,
3, and – in the case of negative correlation – with a “minus” sign. The diagrams
rated 2 pts demonstrated correlation coefficients, r, ranging 0.2–0.45. Since for the
sample size of 20 specimens the correlation significance threshold is 0.44, further
calculations of r for dependences rated 2 pts or less was abandoned. There were
only three diagrams rated 3 points. Hence, a correlation of a coefficient r being
significant or close to significance was detected in no more than 2% of the diagrams. Estimated correlations are shown in Table 2; this shows that the estimate
of 0 prevails, i.e. there is a complete lack of correlation. For a number of 552
diagrams, the following dependences were demonstrated:
–2
–1
0
+1
+2
+3
17
85
267
138
42
3
552
3.1%
15.4%
48.4%
25.0%
7.6%
0.5%
100.0%
Acta Sci. Pol.
13
DISCUSSION
Hair coat characteristics presented in this study have been studied by many
authors. The research was intended to examine the environmental [Dahlman et
al. 2002, 2003] and genetic determinants of these characteristics, or to reveal the
sources of their variation [Cholewa 1978, 1983, Piórkowska 2001, Przysiecki et al.
2009]. The sources of variation also generally included the topographic variability,
involving the differentiation of fur quality depending on its location on the body
[Cholewa 1983, Piórkowska, Natanek 2007].
The most valuable fur is that of the trunk, whereas the fur in the area of the
head and the limbs is of much lower quality [Cholewa 2000]. The coat of the arctic
fox on the back is thicker, longer, and usually more intensely colored than that on
the belly. On the head and the limbs, the fur is much shorter and awn hairs prevail
in it. The hair on the tail is longer than on the trunk.
The presented results of measurements of the coat characteristics on the back
of arctic foxes are similar to those available in the specialist Polish [Cholewa 1978,
1983, 1988], Russian [Syrnikov, Vladimirov 1977], and German literature items
[Cholewa 1982].
It is difficult, however, to compare the data coming from other regions of the
body, because the worse quality of hairs on them previously discouraged any measurements. The presented analysis of the arctic fox coat characteristics has brought closer the variability of the characteristics on body regions that complement
their topographical diversity. The relationships between the same fur characteristics in different parts of the body in the arctic fox were rarely discussed. Only
Mejza [1975], using canonical correlation, showed that the relationships between
the core thickness of awn, transitional, and down hairs in various regions of the
body proved to be statistically non-significant at α = 0.05. However, this author’s
finding of a statistically significant correlation between the core thickness of guard hairs located on different body parts proved that it is desireable to search for
a method of arctic fox fur evaluation based on physical properties.
The data reported in this study revealed of a very weak correlation of a number of morphological hair characteristics between the parts of the body. While it
may have partly resulted from the small size of the study group of foxes, it is also
very doubtful that examination of a much more numerous population could demonstrate a radical change in the results. In any case, it does not seem possible to
base an objective assessment on the measurements of hair from only one part of
the body of a polar fox.
14
R. Cholewa et al.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The mean values of the structural coat characteristics indicates a particular
abundance of hair on the tail, and the smallest amount on the head.
2. The most intense coat color was found on the head and the shank, and the
poorest on the tail, which also corresponds to the visual evaluation.
3. The correlation in the characteristics between different parts of the body
turned out to be negligible – statistically non-significant.
4. It is impossible to assess the basic structural characteristics and the dark
tops of hairs in the arctic fox fur cover on the basis of a single sample of
hair.
REFERENCES
Cholewa R., Gedymin J., 1974. Próba obiektywnej oceny barwy podszycia u lisa polarnego (Alopex lagopus L.) [Attempt of an objective evaluation of underfur color
in arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus L.)]. Rocz. AR Pozn., LXXIV, Zootech., 21–28 [in
Polish].
Cholewa R., 1978. Badania nad dziedziczeniem niektórych cech morfologicznych okrywy
lisa polarnego (Alopex lagopus L.) [Studies on inheritance of selected morphological
characteristics of the arctic fox (Alopex lagopus L.) coat]. Rocz. Nauk. Rol., 8, 98,
57–69 [in Polish].
Cholewa R., 1982. Der Pelz der norwegischen und polnischen blauen Polarfüchse im
Lichte der Laborforschungen. Dte. Pelztierzücht. 4, 55–57.
Cholewa R., 1983. Zmienność z wiekiem cech okrywy włosowej oraz budowy i wielkości
niebieskiego lisa polarnego [Age-related variability of hair coat, body structure and
size of the blue polar fox]. Rocz. AR Pozn., Rozpr. Nauk., 129, p. 53 [in Polish].
Cholewa R., 1988. Chów i hodowla lisów [Farming and Breeding Foxes]. PWRiL, Warszawa [in Polish].
Cholewa R., 2000. Chów i hodowla zwierzat
˛ futerkowych [Farming and Breeding FurBearing Animals]. Wydaw. AR Pozn., p. 347 [in Polish].
Dahlman T., Valaja J., Niemela P., Jalava T., 2002. Influence of protein level and supplementary L-methionine and lysine on growth performance and fur quality of blue Fox
(Alopex lagopus). Acta Agric. Scand., A, Animal Sci. 52, 174–182.
Dahlman T., Valaja J., Jalava T., Skrede A., 2003. Growth and fur characteristics of
blue Fox (Alopex lagopus) fed diets with different protein levels and with or without
DL-methionine supplementation in the growing-furring period. Canadian J. Anim.
Sci. 83 (2), 239–245.
Gedymin J., Banasiak M., Cholewa R., 1973. Próba oceny jakości surowych skór lisów
polarnych i norek standard aparatem SGM [Attempt to evaluate the quality of raw
pelts of arctic foxes and standard mink using the SGM device]. Mat. Zjazdu Nauk.
PTZ, Poznań, 7–8 września 1971 r., Warszawa, 206–210 [in Polish].
Acta Sci. Pol.
15
Mejza S., 1975. Korelacje kanoniczne i ich zastosowanie w badaniach rolniczych [Canonical correlations and their application in agricultural research]. Piate
˛ Colloq. Metodolog., PAN, 257–278 [in Polish].
Piórkowska M., 2001. An attempt at objective evaluation of hair coat value in the blue
Fox (Alopex lagopus). Ann. Anim. Sci. 1 (2), 163–178.
Piórkowska M., Natanek A., 2007. Ocena jakości okrywy włosowej populacji lisa polarnego z uwzgl˛ednieniem obrazu histologicznego skóry [Evaluation of hair coat quality
in a population of the arctic fox with respect to the histological image of the skin].
Rocz. Nauk. PTZ 3 (4), 331–337 [in Polish].
Przysiecki P., Filistowicz A., Gorajewska E., Filistowicz A., Nawrocki Z., Nowicki S.,
Rehout V., 2009. The effect of genotype on coat traits in Arctic Fox during summer
and winter season. J. Agrobiol. 26 (1), 45–49.
Syrnikov N.J., Vladimirov A.V., 1977. Charakteristika pescovolisich gibridov. Biologija
i Patologija Kletočnych Pušnych Zverej, Kirov, 104–105.
Toldt K., 1935. Aufbau und natürliche Färbung des Haarkleides der Wildsäugetiere. Deutsche Gesselschaft für Kleintier- und Pelztierzucht. G.m.b.H & Co., Leipzig.
WSPÓŁZALEŻNOŚĆ CECH OKRYWY WŁOSOWEJ Z RÓŻNYCH
PARTII CIAŁA U LISÓW POLARNYCH (ALOPEX LAGOPUS L.)
Streszczenie. Celem pracy było zbadanie możliwości oceny okrywy włosowej lisów
polarnych na podstawie zgodności pomiarów laboratoryjnych wykonanych na próbkach włosów z różnych okolic ich futra. Materiał badawczy stanowiły próbki dojrzałej okrywy włosowej 20 dwuletnich samic lisa polarnego niebieskiego, które pobrano
w końcu stycznia. Wyci˛eto je przy skórze z 6 miejsc na powierzchni ciała zwierz˛ecia,
które stanowiły: ciemi˛e (mi˛edzy uszami), grzbiet (środek mi˛edzy nasada˛ ogona a nasada˛ szyi), bok (poniżej miejsca pobrania próbki grzbietu), brzuch (w połowie odległości mi˛edzy nasada˛ przednich łap a sromem), ogon (środek strony grzbietowej) oraz
podudzie. Próbki poddano pomiarom makro- i mikro-skopowym. Uzyskane wyniki
wskazuja,˛ że okrywa włosowa lisów polarnych na grzbiecie jest g˛eściejsza, dłuższa
oraz z reguły intensywniej umaszczona niż na brzuchu. Na głowie oraz na kończynach
owłosienie jest znacznie krótsze i wi˛ekszy w nim udział maja˛ włosy ościste. Wyniki
niniejszej pracy świadcza˛ o bardzo słabej zależności szeregu cech morfologicznych
owłosienia mi˛edzy poszczególnymi okolicami ciała. Stwierdzono, że niemożliwa jest
ocena obiektywna podstawowych cech strukturalnych i ciemnych wierzchołków włosów w okrywie lisa polarnego na podstawie pomiarów włosów tylko z jednej partii
ciała zwierzat.
˛
Słowa kluczowe: cechy strukturalne i morfologiczne włosów, lis polarny, okrywa
włosowa, zróżnicowanie
Accepted for print – Zaakceptowano do druku: 13.12.2013
ANALYSIS OF CONFORMATION TRAITS OF NEW
ZEALAND WHITE RABBITS ON A BREEDING FARM
Dorota Kołodziejczyk, Aldona Gontarz, Stanisław Socha
Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities, Poland
Abstract. The aim of the study was to analyze the conformation traits of rabbits
in relation to the year of evaluation and sex of the animals. The analyzes involved
a rabbit production farm located in south-eastern Poland. The farm is specialized in
the following breeds: New Zealand White, Blanc de Termonde, Alaska, Californian
White, Giant Chinchilla, and Popielno White. The study covered 858 New Zealand
White rabbits (741 does and 117 bucks). The ANOVA results indicated statistically
significant effect of sex on the quality of the coat, body frame and breed type. The
year of evaluation statistically significantly influenced the body size, weight, hair coat
quality, specific breed traits, body frame, breed type, and the total score attained by the
rabbits. The interaction sex × year of evaluation significantly influenced body weight
only, whereas no significant effect can be found if we look at the remaining traits.
The variation of the traits, as measured with the coefficient of variability, ranged from
1.05 to 9.19%. The correlations were quite varied, ranging from –0.7715 (between the
breed type and the year of evaluation) up to 0.6017 (between the body frame and the
total score). The analyzed animals were characterized by very good body type and
conformation parameters, which is demonstrated by a high score achieved for each
trait.
Key words: breeding farm, conformation traits, phenotypic correlations, rabbits,
statistical analysis, variability
INTRODUCTION
Domestic rabbit originates from the wild Mediterranean rabbit, whose domestication occurred probably between the years 150 and 100 BC. The domestication resulted in a number of changes observable in both the anatomy and the
Corresponding author – Adres do korespondencji: dr inż. Dorota Kołodziejczyk, Siedlce University
of Natural Sciences and Humanities, Department of Breeding Methods and Poultry and Small
Ruminant Breeding, ul. Bolesława Prusa 14, 08-110 Siedlce, Poland, e-mail: [email protected]
18
D. Kołodziejczyk et al.
appearance of the body, color and length of hair, or in the behavior of rabbits.
First crossing attempts, which can be dated back to the Middle Ages, were carried
out in French monasteries. The monks were the first rabbit breeders to artificially
cross individuals, which over time led to the emergence of various breeds and utility types [Barabasz, Bieniek 2003]. Currently, rabbits are farmed for pelts, angora
wool, and – primarily – for the nutritious and dietetic meat.
The list of top rabbit producing countries includes France, Spain, Italy, China,
Egypt, Brazil, and Argentina [Bielański 2004, Bielański, Kowalska 2008]. Important traits to be taken into account in the production of rabbit meat include the
structure and the size of the body [Yakubu, Ayoade 2009, Egena et al. 2012]. As
a result of the human impact and genetic improvement, the average body weight
of rabbits increased dramatically. Currently, the domestic rabbit ranges between
1 and 9 kg in weight, whereas wild rabbits never reach more than 1.5–2 kg. Body
weight is closely related to its length, in which the domestic rabbit can attain up
to 75 cm, as compared to up to 40 cm attainable by the wild form [Niedźwiadek
1984]. Another trait is the color of the coat; the Agouti type of the wild rabbit has
transformed into a wide range of color types seen in the today’s domestic rabbit.
The aim of the study was to analyze the conformation traits of New Zealand
White rabbits farmed at a breeding facility located in south-eastern Poland.
Data for the study were obtained from a rabbit breeding farm located in southeastern Poland. The farm specializes in various breeds of rabbits, mostly New
Zealand White and Blanc de Termonde. To a lesser extent, other breeds, such as
Alaska, Californian White, Chinchilla Giant, and Popielno White, are managed
on the farm, too. Animals are kept in a cage system and fed pelleted feed in accordance with the relevant rabbit nutrition standards [Barabasz et al. 1994]. The
female-to-male ratio on the farm is 8:1, and 6 litters on average are obtained from
one female per year. The analysis covered a period of ten years (1994 to 2003),
and involved a total of 858 New Zealand White rabbits, including 117 males and
741 females. Evaluation covered animals aged minimum 6 months.
Traits under consideration were: body weight, frame, size, breed type, quality of fur, and specific breed traits. The specific breed traits include the color of
down hairs, which must be snow-white, eye color (red), and claws (white or fleshcolored). This trait could score a maximum of 20 points. The same point scale
was used for evaluation of body frame, breed type and quality of fur. For each of
the remaining analyzed traits (size, coat color) the animals could attain a maximum of 10 points [Wzorzec 2000]. For each of the studied traits, the following
statistical parameters were calculated: arithmetic means, standard deviations, and
Acta Sci. Pol.
19
Analysis of conformation traits of New Zealand White rabbits . . .
coefficients of variation. Based on the mathematical model, two-way analysis of
variance was performed, which included the year of assessment and the sex of
animals.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The factors that highly significantly affected the body weight of rabbits were:
sex and year of the evaluation. Figure 1 shows the mean body weight in relation
to sex and year of evaluation.
The means shown in Figure 1 reveal that the highest body weight was achieved
by females in the eighth year of the study (4404.62 g), while the lowest – by males
in the fifth year of assessment (3721.88 g).
Males – Samce
Females – Samice
4600
Arythmetic mean – Średnia arytmetyczna
4400
4200
4000
3800
3600
3400
3200
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Year of evaluation – Rok oceny
Fig. 1. Mean body weight of rabbits in grams in relation to sex and the year of
evaluation
Rys. 1. Średnia masa ciała królików wyrażona w gramach w zależności od płci i roku
oceny
Bearing in mind how the level of this trait developed over a number of years,
it can be seen that in the second year of the study there was a significant decrease
in the body weight of females compared to the other years. This could have been
a result of some adverse environmental factors, such as, for example, difficult
personnel situation at the farm and poor nutrition. For males, these means initially
20
decreased from the first to the fifth year of the study, both inclusive, then rose and
declined alternately (Fig. 1).
The body weight is strictly related to the body size, which was expressed in
points. Figure 2 presents the arithmetic means of body size of rabbits by gender
and the year evaluation.
Figure 2 shows that the highest scores were achieved by females in the sixth
and eighth year of the study, whereas males attained the highest number of points
(10) at the sixth, seventh, eighth, and tenth year of evaluation.
Males – Samce
Females – Samice
10,2
10
9,8
9,6
9,4
9,2
9
8,8
8,6
8,4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Fig. 2. Descriptive statistics of body size score of rabbits in relation to sex and the year
of evaluation
Rys. 2. Charakterystyka statystyczna wielkości królików wyrażonej w punktach,
w zależności od płci i roku licencji
Research on the influence of sex on the growth rate of rabbits have benn carried out for a long time. Ristić [1988] and Staliński et al. [1989] demonstrated
that the rate of growth of pure-bred animals is dependent on sex. Parigi-Bini et al.
[1992], however, present the opinion that sex is important only in the final stage
of fattening. Bieniek [1997] dealt with a related issue, however, and the author
noticed differences between the sexes and daily gains in the period from 14 to
42 days of age. A similar view was represented by Zajac
˛ [2002]. Castellini and
Panella [1988], on the other hand, stated that a difference in body weight are seen
when the rabbits reach full sexual maturity, i.e. at the age of 4–5 months.
Acta Sci. Pol.
21
The year of evaluation and sex highly significantly influenced the quality of
fur, which is depicted in Figure 3.
Figure 3 indicates that, for both males and females, fur quality was at the
highest level in the first year of evaluation. Later on the animals were characterized
by a slightly lower quality of hair coat, with the lowest mean values found in males
in the third, seventh and tenth year of the study (Fig. 3).
Males – Samce
Females – Samice
20,5
20
19,5
19
18,5
18
17,5
17
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Fig. 3. The average quality of fur of rabbits in relation to sex and the year of evaluation
Rys. 3. Średnia jakość okrywy włosowej królików w zależności od płci i roku oceny
Analyzing the breed type of the rabbits, it can be seen (Fig. 4) that the maximum number of points (20) received both males and females in the second year,
and only males in the third year of the study. The lowest mean was found in males
in the last year evaluation.
The specific traits of breed, i.e. color of down hair, eyes, and claws, like the
breed type, were point-evaluated in the range of 0–20 points.
Figure 5 shows the mean number of points achieved by male and female
New Zealand White rabbits for specific breed traits over the years of evaluation.
Analysis of the results showed that the means remained at a similar level over
nearly the entire period studied, reaching usually 20 points, or slightly fewer only
in a few cases. The lowest score, 19.33 points, was attained by males in the last
year of evaluation.
22
Males – Samce
Females – Samice
20,5
20
19,5
19
18,5
18
17,5
17
16,5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Fig. 4. Statistical characteristics of the breed type of rabbits in relation to sex and the
year of evaluation
Rys. 4. Charakterystyka statystyczna typu rasowego królików w zależności od roku
oceny i płci zwierząt
Males – Samce
Females – Samice
20,2
20
19,8
19,6
19,4
19,2
19
18,8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Fig. 5. Statistical characteristics of specific breed traits of rabbits in relation to sex and
the year of evaluation
Rys. 5. Charakterystyka statystyczna specyficznych cech rasowych królików
w zależności od roku oceny i płci zwierząt
Acta Sci. Pol.
23
Another trait significantly affected by sex was the body frame of the rabbits.
It is evaluated in 10-point scale, and the evaluator takes into account the harmony
in the body shape of the animal.
Analyzing the body frame of New Zealand White rabbits, it can be seen that
the value of this trait ranged in the subsequent years of study from 17.98 to 19.43.
The exception is the first year of assessment in which both males and females
attained the lowest means for the frame of the body, respectively 19.43 and 16.6
(Fig. 6).
Males – Samce
Females – Samice
20
19,5
19
18,5
18
17,5
17
16,5
16
15,5
15
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Fig. 6. Descriptive statistics of body frame of rabbits in relation to sex and the year of
evaluation
Rys. 6. Charakterystyka statystyczna budowy ciała królików w zależności od płci i roku
oceny
The results do not differ much from those presented Otulakowski [2011]. The
author assessed the body frame of various breeds of rabbits, including the New
Zealand White, and found that the average value of body frame assessment in
all analyzed breeds was low over the years and never – except for one year –
exceeded 19 points. The author also stated that there were very few rabbits which
ware given the model number of points, and the proportion of rabbits with normal
body frame was satisfactory only in the case of the New Zealand White breed.
By adding up the points achiever for all the evaluated traits, we arrived at arithmetic means of the total score, as shown in Figure 7. Mean values of the general
24
evaluation of conformation fluctuated in the range 93.67 to 97.67 points, so were
relatively high. This may prove a good performance and breeding value of the animals. In addition, it can be stated that this breed is one of the best breeds of rabbits
reared on Polish farms. The results confirm the studies by Otulakowski [2011], in
which the New Zealand White rabbits achieved the highest total conformation
score in the group of medium-size breeds of broiler rabbits.
Males – Samce
Females – Samice
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
91
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Fig. 7. Descriptive statistics of the total score in relation to sex and year of evaluation
Rys. 7. Charakterystyka statystyczna łącznej sumy punktów królików w zależności od
płci i roku oceny
The variability of the studied traits, as measured with the coefficient of variation (Table 1), ranged from 1.05 to 9.19%, depending on the trait. The lowest
coefficient of variation was observed for specific breed traits, while the highest for
body weight (in kg).
The total score was characterized by relatively low variability. This may mean
that the animals which were very good in some traits were also slightly inferior in
terms of the others, which resulted in equalization of the total score value.
Table 2 shows the correlations between the phenotypic characteristics of the
examined rabbits. The data reveals that the estimated correlation were quite varied, and ranged from –0.7715 to 0.6017. The lowest correlations were observed
between the type of breed and the year of evaluation, the highest ones – between
Acta Sci. Pol.
25
Table 1. Coefficients of variability for the analyzed traits
Tabela 1. Współczynniki zmienności analizowanych cech
Trait
Cecha
Sex
Płeć
Males
Samce
Females
Samice
Total
Ogółem
Body
frame
Budowa
ciała
Breed
type
Typ
rasowy
5.68
7.23
4.79
5.12
1.46
8.67
2.23
5.97
7.19
5.33
4.62
1.05
9.19
1.73
5.88
7.28
5.27
4.67
1.10
9.18
1.80
Size
Wielkość
Hair coat
Specific breed
Body
quality
traits
weight, kg
Jakość okrywy Specyficzne Masa ciała,
włosowej
cechy rasowe
kg
Total score
Suma
punktów
Table 2. Phenotypic correlations between the analyzed traits in the population of
rabbits
Tabela 2. Korelacje fenotypowe pomiędzy analizowanymi cechami w populacji
królików
Trait
Cecha
Body weight
Masa ciała
Body
size
Wielkość
zwierząt
Body
Breed type Hair coat
frame Typ rasowy quality
Budowa
Jakość
ciała
okrywy
włosowej
**0.5198
Body size
Wielkość
zwierząt
Body frame
Budowa ciała
Breed type
Typ rasowy
Hair coat
quality
Jakość okrywy
włosowej
Specific breed
traits
Specyficzne
cechy rasowe
Specific
breed traits
Specyficzne
cechy rasowe
Year of
evaluation
Rok licencji
*0.1299 **–0.3389
0.0050
–0.0399
*0.1239
** 0.2881
*0.1392 **–0.3167
**–0.1419
–0.0715
**0.1894
** 0.3326
–0.0391
**–0.2082
0.0099
**0.6017
0.0850
*0.1563
*0.1413
**0.4038
**–0.7715
*0.1097
** 0.3295
**–0.3705
*0.1228
**–0.2261
Total score
Suma punktów
* – differences significant for P ≤ 0.05; ** – differences significant for P ≤ 0.01.
* – różnice istotne dla P ≤ 0,05; ** – różnice wysoce istotne dla P ≤ 0,01.
Total score
Suma
punktów
**–0.3481
26
body frame and the total score attained. Both correlations proved highly significant.
Correlation is an important measure for the breeder, as it indicates the existence of a relationship between various traits in the same subject. The correlation
coefficient, ranging from –1 to +1, is a measure of this relationship between traits. As long as the coefficient remains within the range –1 to 0, the correlation is
negative, which means that an improvement in one trait will result in deterioration of another. If the coefficient ranges from 0 to +1, the correlation is positive,
indicating an improvement in both traits [Barabasz, Bieniek 2003].
Positive correlations between the analyzed traits and the year of evaluation,
obtained in this study, indicate an increase in the value of a given trait over the
study period, whereas negative correlations indicate a decline in the value of the
trait over the 10-year period of observations.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Rabbits are animals that are bred and evaluated in a different way than in
the case of other fur-bearing animals. One of the main differences is the
100-point model for conformation assessment, which includes the 6 traits.
2. The evaluated rabbits attained a high score for individual traits, which leads
to a conclusion that the animals were characterized by very good parameters
of shape and conformation. The New Zealand White rabbit is one of the
most popular rabbit breeds, farmed also in Poland, and – at the same time –
a breed most suitable for intensive farming.
3. The animals were of good quality both in terms of performance and breeding value. The positive correlations found in this study between the evaluated traits (body weight, size in points and body frame) and the year of
evaluation indicate a growth in this trait over the studied period, whereas
negative correlations between the remaining traits (breed type, hair coat quality, specific breed traits, and total score attained) and the year of evaluation
indicate a slight decline in the value of the traits over the studied decade.
REFERENCES
Barabasz B., Bielański P., Jarosz S., Sławoń J., 1994. Normy żywienia mi˛esożernych
i roślinożernych zwierzat
˛ futerkowych [Nutrition standards for carnivorous and herbivorous fur animals]. Instytut Fizjologii i Żywienia Zwierzat
˛ PAN [in Polish].
Barabasz B., Bieniek J., 2003. Króliki. Towarowa produkcja mi˛esna [Rabbits. Commodity
meat production]. PWRiL Warszawa [in Polish].
Acta Sci. Pol.
27
Bielański P., 2004. Wpływ rasy i systemów utrzymania na cechy produkcyjne brojlerów
króliczych [Effect of breed and housing systems on production traits of broiler rabbits]. Instytut Zootechniki Kraków, 282. [in Polish].
Bielański P., Kowalska D., 2008. Królik – nieznany czy znany? Cz. I. Polska [Rabbit –
known or rather unknown? Part I, Poland] Mag. Weter. [in Polish].
Bieniek J., 1997. Wpływ czynników genetycznych i środowiskowych na użytkowość mi˛esna˛ królików w warunkach chowu tradycyjnego [Effect of genetic and environmental
factors on rabbit slaughter value under traditional farming conditions]. Zesz. Nauk.
AR, Kraków. [in Polish].
Castellini C., Panella F., 1988. Heritability of pre- and post-weaning weights in rabbits.
Proc. 4th World Rabbit Congress, Budapest, Hungary, 2, 112–119.
Egena S.S.A., Akpa G.N., Aremu A., Alemede I.C., 2012. Predicting body weight of
Rabbit from linear body measurements at various ages by genetic group, parity and
sex. 10th World Rabbit Congress, September 3–6, Egypt, 19–23.
Niedźwiadek S., 1984. Zasady hodowli królików [The Principles of Rabbit Breeding].
PWRiL Warszawa. [in Polish].
Otulakowski G., 2011. Analiza genetyczna i fenotypowa cech pokroju i wskaźników rozrodu wybranych ras królików. Rozprawa doktorska [Genetic and phenotypic analysis
of conformation traits and reproduction parameters of selected rabbit breeds. PhD
Dissertation]. UP Wrocław. [in Polish].
Parigi-Bini R., Xiccato G., Cinetto M., Zotte A.D., Converso R., 1992. Effect of age,
slaugter weight and sex on carcass and meat quality. Zootech. Nutr. Anim., 18, 3–4,
157–172.
Ristić M., 1988. Einfluss von Geschlecht und Mastengewicht auf den Schlachtkörperwert
von Jungmastkaninchen. Proc. From the 6th Symposium on Housing and Diseases of
Rabbits, Furbearing Animals and Pet Animals, Celle, Germany, 81–88.
Staliński Z., Bieniek J., Drożyńska D., Ptak E., Stobiecka D., 1989. Wpływ rasy, płci, oraz
systemu żywienia na wzrost i niektóre cechy użytkowości mi˛esnej królików [Effect of
breed, sex, and feeding system on the growth and selected slaughter value traits of
rabbits]. Pr. Mat. Zootech. 39, 57–72. [in Polish].
Wzorzec królików [Rabbit Model]. CSHZ, Warszawa 2000. [in Polish].
Yakubu A., Ayoade J.A., 2009. Application of Principal Component Factor Analysis in
Quantifying Size and Morphological Indices of Domestic Rabbits. Int. J. Morphol.,
27 (4), 1013–1017.
28
ANALIZA CECH POKROJU KRÓLIKÓW RASY NOWOZELANDZKI
BIAŁY W FERMIE HODOWLANEJ
Streszczenie. Celem pracy była analiza cech pokroju królików w zależności od roku
oceny oraz płci zwierzat.
˛ Analiza˛ obj˛eto hodowlana˛ ferm˛e królików znajdujac
˛ a˛ si˛e
w południowo-wschodniej Polsce. Ferma ta specjalizuje si˛e w hodowli królików ras:
nowozelandzki biały, termondzki biały, alaska, biały kalifornijski, szynszyl wielki
i biały popielniański. Obserwacji poddano 858 zwierzat
˛ (741 samic i 117 samców)
rasy nowozelandzki biały. Przeprowadzone analizy wariancji wykazały statystycznie wysoko istotny wpływ płci na jakość okrywy włosowej, budow˛e ciała i typ rasowy. Rok licencji statystycznie wysoko istotnie wpłynał
˛ na wielkość królików, mas˛e
ciała, jakość okrywy włosowej, specyficzne cechy rasowe, budow˛e ciała, typ rasowy
oraz łaczn
˛ a˛ sum˛e punktów, jaka˛ uzyskały króliki. Interakcja płci z rokiem oceny wysoko istotnie wpłyn˛eła jedynie na mas˛e ciała, natomiast dla pozostałych analizowanych cech nie stwierdzono statystycznie istotnego wpływu. Zmienność cech mierzona
współczynnikiem zmienności osiagn˛
˛ eła wartości od 1,05 do 9,19%. Oszacowane korelacje były dość zróżnicowane, wahały si˛e w przedziale od –0,7715 (mi˛edzy typem
rasowym a rokiem licencji) do 0,6017 (pomi˛edzy budowa˛ ciała, a łaczn
˛ a˛ suma˛ punktów). Zwierz˛eta poddane analizie charakteryzowały si˛e bardzo dobrymi parametrami
budowy i pokroju, o czym świadczy wysoka liczba punktów uzyskanych podczas
oceny za poszczególne cechy.
Słowa kluczowe: analiza statystyczna, cechy pokroju, ferma zarodowa, korelacje
fenotypowe, króliki, zmienność
Acta Sci. Pol.
STUDY BY SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
OF THE MORPHOGENESIS OF FILIFORM AND
FUNGIFORM PAPILLAE IN THE RABBIT,
ORYCTOLAGUS CUNICULUS F. DOMESTICA
Mirosława Kulawik, Szymon Godynicki
Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poland
Abstract. Rudiments of fungiform papillae were observed at day 18 of prenatal development. They were arranged only on the dorsal surface of the apex of the tongue and
its margins. The fungiform papillae looked like a hemispherical, dome-shaped eminences. From day 22 of prenatal development, scanning electron microscope showed
also that rudiments of fungiform papillae appeared on the body of the tongue at the
front of forming torus linguae, and on its both sides. No rudiments of filiform papillae
were observed at day 22 of prenatal development. However, after removal the epithelium, the connective tissue cores of rudiments of fungiform and filiform papillae were
visible. Scanning electron microscopy showed on the surface of the tongue numerous
filiform papillae at day 26 of prenatal development. They were arranged on the entire
dorsal surface of the apex and body of the tongue, and on its margins. During morphogenesis two types of filiform papillae were noticed. One type of filiform papillae was
similar to separated cones, another had 3–4 processes more. The similar changes was
with the shape of connective tissue core. The fungiform papillae were located among
filiform papillae. Scanning electron microscope showed three types connective tissue
cores of developing fungiform papillae. One type was mace-shaped, another one was
bowl-shaped and yet barred-shaped. At day 30 of postnatal development on the surface of the connective tissue cores of fungiform papillae, from its top towards its base
there were parallel and longitudinal folds.
Key words: domestic rabbit, lingual papillae, morphogenesis
Corresponding author – Adres do korespondencji: dr Mirosława Kulawik, Poznań University of
Life Sciences, Department of Animal Anatomy, Wojska Polskiego 71 C, 60-625 Poznań, Poland,
e-mail: [email protected]
30
M. Kulawik and S. Godynicki
INTRODUCTION
In literature some structure of filiform papillae and keratinization of their epithelium was frequently described in adult mammals [Boshell et al. 1982, Iwasaki
1990]. Scientists provided research results on the structure of fungiform papillae, their topography as well as their quantitative changes [Ojima 1998, Kilinc et
al. 2010]. Several articles have been published in the scientific literature regarding the morphogenesis of papillae of the tongue in various species of animals
[Fujimoto et al. 1993, Iwasaki et al. 1999, Igbokwe, Okolie 2009] and in human
[Witt, Reutter 1997].
The general structure of a rabbit tongue was published in Barone’s atlas [1973].
Later, articles gave some more details about the structure and angioarchitecture of
the tongue papillae in adult rabbits [Kobayashi 1992, Ojima et al. 1997, Kulawik,
Godynicki 2007]. Development of the rabbit tongue and fungiform papillae investigated by light microscope and presented in literature [Kulawik, Godynicki
2005, 2009]. There is a defficiency of results which describes the development
of filiform and fungiform papillae on the rabbit tongue using scanning electron
microscope. For this reason, we aimed to examine the morphogenesis of filiform
and fungiform papillae by this microscope in this species. The additional factor
which induced us to conduct this research was the fact that the rabbit is a popular
laboratory animal, which is often bred and kept at home similarly to pets.
The tongues of 30 rabbits, Oryctolagus cuniculus f. domestica, of both sexes
were used in this study. Tongues were removed from oral cavity at four different
prenatal stages (E) on the: 18th (3 tongues), 20th (3 tongues), 22nd (9 tongues)
and 26th day (5 tongues). The tongues came also from animals at postnatal stages
(P): just after birth (4 tongues); on the 15th (3 tongues) and 30th day (3 tongues).
The age of fetuses was determined on the basis of the CRL (Crown-Rump-Length)
value [Evans and Sack 1973]. Studies on animals were conducted with approval
by the Local Ethics Committee, permission N. 4/2000.
The samples of filiform and fungiform papillae from different areas of the tongues were chosen and fixed in the Karnovsky solution (4◦ C, pH 7.2) for 24 hours.
Then the samples were dehydrated through a graded series of ethanol, critical point dried, mounted on aluminum stubs and coated with gold. For the purpose of
observations of the connective tissue core of filiform and fungiform papillae, some
samples after being fixed in the Karnovsky solution were treated in 10% NaOH solution for 14–20 days at room temperature. The samples were observed at various
angles under a scanning electron microscopes: Hitachi S-4200 and LEO 435VP.
Acta Sci. Pol.
Study by scanning electron microscopy of the morphogenesis . . .
31
RESULTS
On the 18th day of prenatal development, study by scanning electron microscope revealed rudiments of fungiform papillae as hemispherical, dome-shaped
eminences. The rudiments were located irregularly on the dorsal surface of the
apex of the tongue and on its margins. No rudiments of filiform papillae were observed at this stage (Fig. 1). At E20, scanning electron microscope showed, that
the outline of the surface of the rabbit tongue was similar as at E18.
Fig. 1. E18: the rudiments of fungiform papillae (stars); scale bar = 30 µm
Rys. 1. E18: zawiązki brodawek grzybowatych (gwiazdki); skala = 30 µm
At E22, rudiments of fungiform papillae were additionally located in the anterior part of the dorsal surface of the body of the tongue. They were arranged
irregularly. The rudiments of these papillae were observed also on both sides of
forming torus linguae. The arrangement of these rudiments was linear. Also at this
stage no rudiments of filiform papillae were seen. After removal the epithelium
using NaOH maceration method, connective tissue cores of developing fungiform
papillae were observed. Arrangement of the connective tissue cores corresponded to the topography of rudiments of fungiform papillae on the tongue, which
32
was displayed during examination of the surface of the tongue with the usage of
scanning electron microscope. Moreover, connective tissue cores of rudiments of
filiform papillae were observed. They covered completely surface of the apex, its
margins, and the dorsal surface of the body of the tongue. Connective tissue cores
of fungiform and filiform papillae were in form irregular protrusions (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. E22: the connective tissue core of fungiform papillae (stars) and filiform
papillae (arrows); scale bar = 20 µm
Rys. 2. E22: zrąb łącznotkankowy brodawek grzybowatych (gwiazdki) i nitkowatych
(strzałki); skala = 20 µm
At E26, scanning electron microscope revealed that rudiments of filiform papillae were compactly and densely distributed over the entire dorsal surface of
the apex, the body and on the margins of the tongue. Their tips were round and
covered by desquamating epithelial cells. Rudiments of fungiform papillae were
larger and were among developing filiform papillae on the areas described in the
earlier stages (Fig. 3). After removal of epithelium, numerous palmate protrusions
could be seen, forming connective tissue cores of rudiments of filiform papillae.
The connective tissue cores of rudiments of fungiform papillae were of two forms.
One of them was mace-shaped and the other one was bowl-shaped. On the surface
of connective tissue cores of these rudiments some hollows were visible which
were left by taste buds. (Figs. 4, 5).
Acta Sci. Pol.
33
Fig. 3. E26: the fungiform papillae (black stars) and filiform papillae (white stars).
Arrows indicate desquamating superficial epithelium cells; scale bar = 100 µm
Rys. 3. E26: brodawki grzybowate (czarne gwiazdki) i nitkowate (białe gwiazdki).
Strzałki wskazują złuszczające się komórki nabłonkowe; skala = 100 µm
Fig. 4. E26: the mace-shaped connective tissue core of fungiform papilla (star) and
connective tissue core of filiform papillae (white arrows). Black arrow indicates
hollow which was left by taste buds; scale bar = 700 µm
Rys. 4. E26: buławkowaty zrąb łącznotkankowy brodawki grzybowatej (gwiazdka)
i zrąb łącznotkankowy brodawek nitkowatych (białe strzałki). Czarna strzałka
wskazuje dołek, który pozostawiły kubki smakowe; skala = 700 µm
34
Fig. 5. E26: the bowl-shaped connective tissue core of fungiform papilla (star) and
connective tissue core of filiform papillae (white arrows). Black arrow indicates
hollow which was left by taste buds; scale bar = 50 µm
Rys. 5. E26: miseczkowaty zrąb łącznotkankowy brodawki grzybowatej (gwiazdka)
i zrąb łącznotkankowy brodawek nitkowatych (białe strzałki). Czarna strzałka
wskazuje dołek, który pozostawiły kubki smakowe; skala = 50 µm
At P1, developing filiform papillae still had round tips. The connective tissue
core of each filiform papilla consisted of single protrusions, wider at the base and
narrower at the tip (Fig. 6). Filiform papillae which were in the posterior part
of the body of the tongue were tightly arranged. The connective tissue cores of
these papillae were domed-shaped (Fig. 7). Developing fungiform papillae were
scattered among the filiform papillae. They were numerous on the tip of the tongue
and on its margins. There were desquamating epithelium cells on the surface of
these papillae. Their connective tissue cores were mace-shaped and bowl-shaped.
At P15, distribution of filiform and fungiform papillae was the same as in the
previous stage. The tips of filiform papillae were more slender, directed towards
the throat. But the tips of the filiform papillae on the side parts of the dorsal area of
the body of the tongue, nearby fungiform papillae, formed a rosette (Fig. 8). The
most compact order of filiform papillae was still observed on the dorsal surface of
the body of the tongue on its back. After removing the epithelium, the connective
tissue cores of filiform papillae were seen as single protrusions as scanning electron microscope revealed. They were wider at the base and had round or spikey
tips. The connective tissue cores of fungiform papillae were of three forms: mace,
bowl and barrel-shaped. On its top surface there were hollows left by taste buds
(Fig. 9).
Acta Sci. Pol.
Fig. 6. P1: the connective tissue core of filiform papillae (stars); scale bar = 50 µm
Rys. 6. P1: zrąb łącznotkankowy brodawek nitkowatych (gwiazdki); skala = 50 µm
Fig. 7. P1: dome-shaped connective tissue core of filiform papillae (stars);
scale bar = 50 µm
Rys. 7. P1: kopulastego kształtu zręby łącznotkankowe brodawek nitkowatych
(gwiazdki); skala = 50 µm
35
36
Fig. 8. P15: the fungiform papilla (star) and filiform papillae which forming rosette
(arrows); scale bar = 100 µm
Rys. 8. P15: brodawka grzybowata (gwiazdka) i brodawki nitkowate które formują
rozetę (strzałki); skala = 100 µm
Fig. 9. P15: the barrel-shaped connective tissue core of fungiform papilla (star). Black
arrows indicate hollows which were left by taste buds; scale bar = 50 µm
Rys. 9. P15: beczułkowaty zrąb łącznotkankowy brodawki grzybowatej (gwiazdka).
Czarne strzałki wskazują dołki, które pozostawiły kubki smakowe;
skala = 50 µm
Acta Sci. Pol.
37
Fig. 10. P30: the fungiform papilla (star) and filiform papillae (arrows) with slightly
round tips; scale bar = 100 µm
Rys. 10. P30: brodawka grzybowata (gwiazdka) i brodawki nitkowate (strzałki) z lekko
zaokrąglonymi końcami; skala = 100 µm
Fig. 11. P30: the fungiform papilla (star) and filiform papillae (arrows) with spiky tips;
scale bar = 100 µm
Rys. 11. P30: brodawka grzybowata (gwiazdka) i brodawki nitkowate (strzałki)
z ostrymi końcami; skala = 100 µm
38
Fig. 12. P30: the filiform papillae with 3-4 processes (arrows); scale bar = 100 µm
Rys. 12. P30: brodawki nitkowate z 3-4 wyrostkami (strzałki); skala = 100 µm
Fig. 13. P30: the connective tissue core of the fungiform papilla with parallel and
longitudinal folds (arrows); scale bar = 50 µm
Rys. 13. P30: zrąb łącznotkankowy brodawki grzybowatej z równoległymi
i podłużnymi fałdami (strzałki); skala = 50 µm
Acta Sci. Pol.
39
At P30, the filiform papillae were distributed on the rabbit tongue less compactly. Filiform papillae were of single cones with a slightly round tips (Fig. 10).
But on the posterior part of the tongue, scanning electron microscope revealed
filiform papillae with spiky tips (Fig. 11). The connective tissue cores of filiform
papillae consisted of single cone-shaped protrusions, likewise at P15. At medial
part of dorsal surface of the body of the tongue, filiform papillae had one central
cone protrusion with 3–4 processes (Fig. 12). The connective tissue cores some
of filiform papillae in this part of the tongue had also additional 3–4 short processes, branching off one central protrusion. Fungiform papillae were scattered
among the filiform papillae (Figs. 10, 11). The biggest cluster of these papillae
were observed on the top of the tongue and on its margins. On the surface of the
connective tissue cores of fungiform papillae, from its top towards its base there
were parallel and longitudinal folds. On the top of the connective tissue core some
pits were observed likewise in previous stages (Fig. 13).
DISCUSSION
The present study by scanning electron microscope indicates, that the morphogenesis of filiform and fungiform papillae is complicated process. Development
of these papillae proceed both in prenatal and postnatal life.
Some studies revealed that the filiform papillae of various species had a diverse structural organization [Kullaa-Mikkonen et al. 1987, Estecondo et al. 2001].
Furthermore, the shape of these papillae varies in different regions of the tongue
[Kurtul, Atalgin 2008]. Regional variation of filiform papillae, and their connective tissue cores also was observed in rabbit. The filiform papillae in the rabbit occurred in two forms as single papillae and ramified papillae. Additionally,
the endings of filiform papillae were slightly circular or spiky. Some differences
also concerned their distribution. On the sides of the dorsal surface of the tongue,
the filiform papillae were distributed slightly more loosely than on the remaining
areas of the tongue. Some researches point out that structural differences of taste
papillae and their sizes depend on food and environmental conditions [Iwasaki
2002, Yoshimura et al. 2002]. These factors were perhaps because of some morphological changes that occurred during morphogenesis of filiform and fungiform
papillae in rabbit. Rabbit during prenatal development has contact with amniotic
fluid and with chemical substances that are present in it. After birth an animal is
fed on mother milk and then regular food. Contact with chemicals contained in
amniotic fluid probably stimulates development of the fetal taste buds which were
described by Fujimoto et al. [1993]. Development of the taste buds are strictly
connected with development of taste papillae such as fungiform papillae. It is important to remember that the crucial condition that effect the development of taste
40
structures has its innervation [Nakashima et al. 1990, Whitehead, Kachele 1994].
The kind of food that the rabbits eat and processes that undergo in oral cavity,
probably causes development different form of filiform papillae. So that kind of
papillae, their structure, sizes and distribution are species property.
The biggest structural diversity of fungiform papillae in the rabbit was observed after epithelium removal. During morphogenesis there were three types of
connective tissue cores. They were mace, bowl and barrel-shaped. Diversity of
shapes of connective tissue cores has confirmed the species distinctness in some
research results concerning a tongue [Zheng, Kobayashi 2006, Emura et al. 2008].
Every examined species by authors had different form of connective tissue cores
of papillae.
Iwasaki et al. [1997] and Witt and Reutter [1997] revealed by scanning electron microscope in mammals, that taste papillae appeared before mechanical papillae. Appearance of fungiform papillae (taste papillae) in rabbit first was confirmed by us.
In the rabbit the centre of fungiform papillae was noticed on the top of its
tongue and its margins. The same observation was done in other animal species
by Emura et al. [1999], Estecondo et al. [2001] and Ciuccio et al. [2008].
The present study do not revealed papillae on the ventral surface of the apex
and on the lateral sides of the tongue. Yet, in other animal species some papillae
on these areas can be found [Emura et al. 1999, 2008].
CONCLUSIONS
1. The primordia of fungiform papillae can be observed as early as at E18, but
the filiform papillae – at E26.
2. During morphogenesis two types of filiform papillae were noticed. One type
of filiform papillae was similar to separated cones, another had 3–4 processes more. The fungiform papillae had three types of connective tissue cores:
mace-shaped, bowl-shaped and barred-shaped.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial support by KBN, grant No. 5P06D01719.
Acta Sci. Pol.
41
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Acta Sci. Pol.
43
BADANIE PRZY POMOCY MIKROSKOPU ELEKTRONOWEGO
SKANINGOWEGO MORFOGENEZY BRODAWEK NITKOWATYCH
I GRZYBOWATYCH U KRÓLIKA, ORYCTOLAGUS CUNICULUS
F. DOMESTICA
Streszczenie. Zawiazki
˛ brodawek grzybowatych obserwowano w 18 dniu rozwoju
prenatalnego. Były one rozmieszczone na powierzchni grzbietowej wierzchołka j˛ezyka i na jego brzegach. Brodawki grzybowate wygladały
˛
jak półkoliste, kopulaste wyniosłości. Od 22 dnia rozwoju prenatalnego, mikroskop elektronowy skaningowy wykazał, że zawiazki
˛
brodawek grzybowatych pojawiły si˛e także na trzonie
j˛ezyka przed formujacym
˛
si˛e wałem j˛ezyka i po jego bokach. Żadnych zawiazków
˛
brodawek nitkowatych nie obserwowano w 22 dniu rozwoju prenatalnego. Jednak
po usuni˛eciu nabłonka, zr˛eby łacznotkankowe
˛
zawiazków
˛
brodawek grzybowatych
i nitkowatych były widoczne. Mikroskop elektronowy skaningowy wykazał na powierzchni j˛ezyka liczne brodawki nitkowate dopiero w 26 dniu rozwoju prenatalnego.
Były one rozmieszczone na całej powierzchni grzbietowej wierzchołka i trzonu j˛ezyka
i na jego brzegach. Podczas morfogenezy zanotowano dwa typy brodawek nitkowatych. Jeden typ brodawek nitkowatych był podobny do pojedynczych stożków a drugi
miał dodatkowe 3–4 wyrostki. Podobne zmiany dotyczyły kształtu zr˛ebu łacznotkan˛
kowego. Brodawki grzybowate zlokalizowane były pośród brodawek nitkowatych.
Mikroskop elektronowy skaningowy wykazał trzy typy zr˛ebów łacznotkankowych
˛
brodawek grzybowatych. Jeden typ był kształtu buławkowatego, drugi miseczkowatego a kolejny beczułkowatego. W 30 dniu rozwoju postnatalnego, na powierzchni
zr˛ebów łacznotkankowych
˛
brodawek grzybowatych, od ich wierzchołka w kierunku
podstawy przebiegały podłużne i równoległe fałdy.
Słowa kluczowe: brodawki j˛ezykowe, królik domowy, morfogeneza
REARING RESULTS AND DIETETIC VALUE OF
BROILER CHICKENS MEAT IN DEPENDENCE
FROM GRAINS COMPOSITION IN MIXTURES
OILED WITH SOYBEAN AND LINSEED OILS
Maria Osek, Renata Świnarska, Anna Milczarek, Barbara Klocek,
Alina Janocha
Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities, Poland
Abstract. The experiment was carried out on 200 ROSS 308 broiler chickens that
were randomly assigned to 5 equal groups (K, D1, D2, D3, D4). The birds were fed the
mixtures Starter (1–21 days of rearing) and Grower/Finisher (21–42 days) oiled with
a mixture of soybean oil (3%) and linseed oil (3%). Two different grains represented
the experimental factor, and were added to the mixtures in a 1:1 ratio, according to
the following design: group K (control) – maize and wheat, group D1 – wheat and
barley, group D2 – wheat and triticale, group D3 – maize and barley, group D4 –
maize and triticale. It was shown that chickens fed the mixtures with triticale at age
42 days had significantly (P ≤ 0.01) higher body weight than those that received
mixtures with barley. In the whole period of rearing, a significantly (P ≤ 0.05) lower
feed conversion ratio was found in chickens fed diets containing wheat and barley, as
compared with the control group. The used mixtures did not influence musculature
and the proportion of skin with subcutaneous fat in carcasses; however, a significantly
(P ≤ 0.05) lower abdominal fat level was found in carcasses of chicken fed mixtures
containing wheat and triticale and wheat and barley, as comparer with the broilers
from other groups (K, D3 and D4). No effect of feeding on the content of most fatty
acids in the lipids of leg muscles was found, while the breast muscles of the birds
receiving the mixture with wheat and barley have shown a significant decrease in the
proportion of linolenic acid and an increase in stearic acid. There were no significant
effects of grain composition in mixtures in terms of muscle pH or sensory properties
of the meat; they had, however, an impact on its color.
Key words: broiler chicken, cereal, feeding, meat quality, rearing performance
Corresponding author – Adres do korespondencji: prof. dr hab. Maria Osek, Siedlce University
of Natural Sciences and Humanities, Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Management,
Bolesława Prusa 14, 08-110 Siedlce, Poland, e-mail: [email protected]
46
M. Osek et al.
INTRODUCTION
Broiler chickens grow very fast and require a large portion of feed, especially rich in metabolizable energy, of which the diet should contain about 13 MJ
[Biesiada-Drzazga et al. 2011]. The basic source of the energy are cereals, which
constitute about 60% of mixtures. The most popular in diets for broiler chickens
are maize and wheat; however, their content in mixtures is reduced due to economic reasons [Korver et al. 2004, Zarghi, Golian 2009, Janocha et al. 2011]. One
of the least expensive [Saki 2005] sources of energy for poultry include wheat
and barley; however, the level of these cereals in mixtures should be limited due
to the quantity of β-glucans in barley and arabinoxylans in wheat. Triticale is a
grain that competes with the aforementioned species, in terms of lower soil requirements and high yielding potential with the nutritive value comparable to wheat.
Triticale, however, is not popular component of mixtures for broiler chickens because it has the most changeable chemical composition (of all grains) and contains
antinutritional factors [Pourreza et al. 2007]. In order to fill the energy demand of
fast growing poultry, oil should be added to their feed mixtures (independently
from the grain species and their proportions). Recent findings showed, that mixtures oiled with plant oils offer the best effects [Osek et al. 2001, Haug et al. 2007];
however, they differentiate the fatty acids profile, which effectively influence the
fatty acids profile of animal products. Modification of this profile leading to obtaining more healthy food can be achieved by supplementation of the animal diet
with omega-3 acids, of which linseed oil is an excellent source.
The aim of the study was to arrive at the best combination of grains in diets
containing a mixture of soybean (3%) and linseed (3%) oils for broiler chickens.
The experiment was carried out on 200 ROSS 308 broiler chickens, which
were randomly assigned to 5 equal groups (K, D1, D2, D3, D4). In each feeding
group there were 4 subgroups, 10 chickens each (5 cocks and 5 cockerels), which
were reared until the age of 42 days. The birds were fed ad libitum, a loose feed
mixtures and had constant access to water. The Starter diet were used in the first
3 weeks of rearing, followed by Grower/Finisher diet (without coccidiostat) fed
over the next 3 weeks. Two different grains were the experimental factor, and
they were added to the diets in 1:1 proportion, in the following design: Group K
(control) – maize and wheat, Group D1 – wheat and barley, Group D2 – wheat
and triticale, Group D3 – maize and barley, Group D4 – maize and triticale.
All the diets were formulated according to own recipes. The components used
in the diets composition, i.e. crushed cereal meal, soybean meal, soybean oil and
Acta Sci. Pol.
Rearing results and dietetic value of broiler chickens meat . . .
47
premix, were obtained from Feed Plant located in the Mazowieckie province,
Poland. Linseed oil was extracted from flaxseed, which was purchased in the Seed
Central and cold pressed on the individual farm. First the seeds were crushed,
then heated to a temperature of approximately 72◦ C and pressed with a hydraulic
press. All feed components were chemically analyzed for basic nutrients content,
according to AOAC [1990], and the results were used to optimize the recipes. The
content of metabolizable energy and basic nutrients in both types of diets (Starter
and Grower/Finisher) were balanced according to the guidelines of the Poultry
Nutrition Standards [2005]. The content of metabolizable energy, amino acids,
minerals and vitamins were calculated according to Poultry Nutrition Standards
[2005], and the level of crude protein and crude fiber were established by own
analyses.
In this experiment broiler body weights (1, 21 and 42 days of age) and feed
intake in each rearing period were recorded, and both live weight gain and feed
conversion ratio (FCR) were calculated. At the age of 42 days, 5 females and
5 males with body weight typical of the group and sex were chosen from each
group. After slaughter, pH15 was measured in the left breast muscle (m. pectoralis major) and in the left leg muscle (m. iliotibialis) using a pH-meter Seven
Go™ SG2 Mettler Toledo with a glass probe electrode, with precision of ±0.01.
Afterwards, the carcasses were cooled at 0–4◦ C for 24 hours, and then pH15 was
measured in the same muscles and simplified slaughter analysis was carried out
according to Ziołecki and Doruchowski [1989]. Samples of breast and leg muscles were collected in order to test basic nutrient content by AOAC [1990] and fatty
acid profile by gas chromatography using the Chrom 5 apparatus with a flame ionization detector (air – hydrogen). A glass column of 2.5 m length with Silar 5 CP
was used with injector and detector temperature of 250◦ C and column temperature of 192◦ C. The carrier gas was nitrogen with a flow rate of 30 ml per minute.
Taste properties of boiled meat samples were evaluated by a group of 6 people on
a 5-point Tilgner’s scale [1957], where 5 scores mean the best evaluation, 1 – the
worst. Sensory properties were estimated according to the methodology described
by Baryłko-Pikielna [1975]. Moreover, color brightness (CIE L* a* b*) of breast
and thigh muscles were evaluated with using the Minolta Chroma Meter CR 300.
The results were statistically analyzed using one-way analysis of variance and
significance of differences between means were tested in groups using Duncan
multiple range test. Statistical analysis was performed using package STATISTICA
ver. 6. [StatSoft® 2001].
48
M. Osek et al.
The chemical analysis of the used feed components are presented Table 1.
There are differences in some nutrients if we compare the amount of basic nutrients in crushed cereal meal with the average content in the same cereals presented by Tables of Chemical Composition and Nutritive Values of Domestic Feeds
[2010]. The highest difference was in the protein content. In 1 kg of ground triticale there was some 15 g less protein, but much more in ground maize. The
low content of protein corresponds with reports stating that triticale has the most
variable chemical composition (of all grains). In crushed cereal meal of wheat
and barley, the protein level was approximately the same as presented in the aforementioned Tables, but in the both cereals we found over 1% more crude fiber
and less (0.2%) crude fat. Fatty acids profiles of the oils used in the mixtures difTable 1. Chemical composition of feed components
Tabela 1. Skład chemiczny komponentów paszowych
Soybean meal
Ground
Ground maize
Ground triticale
Śruta
Ground wheat
barley
Śruta
Śruta
poekstrakcyjna
Śruta pszenna
Śruta
kukurydziana
pszenżytnia
sojowa
jęczmienna
Dry matter – Sucha masa
90.98
89.94
87.79
87.55
88.22
Crude ash – Popiół surowy
6.19
2.08
1.77
1.63
2.49
Crude protein – Białko ogólne
44.34
10.65
12.14
9.94
11.05
Crude fibre – Włókno surowe
3.87
3.43
4.33
2.20
5.73
Crude fat – Tłuszcz surowy
1.59
4.41
1.47
1.50
2.39
N-free extractives – BAW
34.99
69.37
68.08
72.28
66.56
Oil - Olej
Share (% of sum) of fatty acids
Udział (% sumy) kwasów tłuszczowych
soybean – sojowy
linseed – lniany
Basic nutrients content, %
Zawartość składników
podstawowych, %
C14:0 miristic – mirystynowy
C16:0 palmitic – palmitynowy
C16:1 palmitoleic – palmitooleinowy
C18:0 stearic – stearynowy
C18:1 oleic – oleinowy
C18:2 linoleic – linolowy
C18:3 linolenic – linolenowy
C20:0 arachidic – arachidowy
C20:1 eicosenic – eikozenowy
C20:2 eicosadienic – eikozadienowy
C22:0 erucic – erukowy
others – inne
Total – Razem
Saturated – Nasycone (SFA)
Unsaturated – Nienasycone (UFA)
Monounsaturated – Jednonienasycone
(MUFA)
Polyunsaturated – Wielonienasycone
(PUFA)
PUFA n–6/n–3
0.06
11.23
0.04
2.35
23.41
57.23
5.04
0.10
0.10
0.03
0.36
0.05
100.00
14.10
85.85
0.02
4.62
–
3.06
17.84
16.56
57.53
–
0.08
0.02
0.26
0.01
100.00
7.96
92.03
23.55
17.92
62.30
74.11
11.35:1
0.28:1
Acta Sci. Pol.
49
fered greatly. In linseed oil, there were almost by half less saturated fatty acids,
and over 6% points more unsaturated fatty acids, as compared to soybean oil.
Among saturated fatty acids in soybean oil palmitic acid (C16:0 ) predominated,
which with miristic acid (C14:0 ) are classified as the so-called hypercholesteroleTable 2. Composition of feed components (g · kg–1) and nutritive value of feed
mixtures
Tabela 2. Skład komponentowy (g · kg–1) i wartość pokarmowa mieszanek paszowych
Specification
Wyszczególnienie
Maize – Kukurydza
Wheat – Pszenica
Triticale
Pszenżyto
Barley – Jęczmień
Soybean meal
Śruta poekstrakcyjna
sojowa
Soybean oil
Olej sojowy
Linseed oil
Olej lniany
L-lysine – L-lizyna
DL-methione
DL-metionina
Limestone
Kreda pastewna
Dicalcium phosphate
Fosforan 2–Ca
Salt – Sól
Premix – Premiks
Total – Razem
Starter
Grower/Finisher
K
270
270
D1
–
275
D2
–
265
D3
265
–
D4
260
–
K
300
300
D1
–
310
D2
–
295
D3
300
–
D4
285
–
–
–
265
–
260
–
–
295
–
285
–
275
–
265
–
–
310
–
300
–
361
351
371
371
381
300
280.7
311.5
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
300.10 330.90
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
1.50
1.50
1.00
1.40
0.80
2.40
2.40
2.40
2.40
2.40
2.40
2.50
2.30
2.40
2.20
7.60
7.40
7.40
7.40
7.40
7.60
9.70
9.00
8.90
8.40
20.00
20.00
20.00
20.00
20.00
20.00
16.70
17.30
18.40
18.90
3.50
3.50
3.50
3.50
3.50
3.50
3.90
3.90
3.80
3.80
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
1000.00 1000.00 1000.00 1000.00 1000.00 1000.00 1000.00 1000.00 1000.00 1000.00
1 kg of mixtures contain – 1 kg mieszanki zawiera:
Metabolizable energy,
MJ
13.03 12.49 12.64 12.73 12.90 13.23 12.65 12.81 12.93 13.06
Energia metaboliczna,
MJ
Crude protein, g
221.60 219.41 218.32 222.01 217.87 201.39 196.35 198.03 198.16 200.36
Białko ogólne, g
Crude fibre, g
27.76 34.51 28.14 32.91 26.70 27.00 34.54 27.47 32.70 25.97
Włókno surowe, g
Lys, g
12.20 12.31 12.88 12.58 12.91 11.64 11.56 11.92 11.69 11.96
Met, g
5.69
5.62
5.71
5.71
5.75
5.41
5.39
5.34
5.38
5.33
Met + Cys, g
9.52
9.54
9.75
9.53
9.65
8.95
9.00
9.11
8.86
8.99
Thr, g
8.39
8.35
8.01
8.59
8.12
7.47
7.31
7.06
7.53
7.31
Tryp, g
2.78
2.92
3.68
2.86
3.56
2.46
2.58
3.47
2.49
3.36
Ca, g
9.43
9.43
9.49
9.38
9.41
9.34
9.36
9.32
9.35
9.37
P available, g
4.29
4.61
4.52
4.39
4.29
4.06
4.05
4.05
4.06
4.06
P przyswajalny, g
Na, g
1.59
1.56
1.57
1.59
1.60
1.69
1.70
1.70
1.69
1.70
50
M. Osek et al.
mic fatty acids (OFA). There was 2.5 times more palmitic acid and 3 times more
miristic acid than in linseed oil. In soybean oil, the content of palmitic acid was
by as much as 2–5% points lower than those reported by Osek et al. [2001] and
Matyka and Żelazowska [2006]. Moreover, in soybean oil there was 3.5 times
more linoleic acid (adherent to omega-6 group), and 11 times less linolenic acid
(omega-3), than in linseed oil, in which the latter acid predominated (57.53% of
all acids) adherent to omega-3 group. The studies proved, that the share of the
linolenic acid in linseed oil is variable. A lower amount, about 6% points of this
acid in linseed oil was demonstrated by Matyka and Żelazowska [2006], Osek et
al. [2006] Matyka [2007], and similar by Osek et al. [2007].
The composition of feed components and the calculated nutritive value of the
feeds is shown in Table 2, whereas analyzed fatty acids profiles of the dietary
lipids are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Composition and share of fatty acids (% of sum) of feed mixtures
Tabela 3. Skład i udział (% sumy) kwasów tłuszczowych w mieszankach paszowych
Group – Grupa
K
D1
D2
D3
Starter mixture – Mieszanka Starter
43.86
40.09
43.01
40.39
20.74
20.36
23.81
18.04
13.05
15.95
13.03
16.13
86.82
83.93
86.88
83.85
Monounsaturated – Jednonienasycone (MUFA)
22.21
23.47
20.04
25.40
Polyunsaturated – Wielonienasycone (PUFA)
64.61
60.46
66.84
58.45
Neutral or hypocholesterolemic – Neutralne
89.40
86.53
89.48
86.63
i hipocholesterolemiczne (DFA = C18:0 + UFA)
Hypercholesterolemic – Hipercholesterolemiczne
10.29
13.17
10.26
13.14
(OFA = C14:0 + C16:0)
PUFA n–6/n–3
2.11:1
1.97:1
1.80:1 2.24:1
Grower/Finisher mixture – Mieszanka Grower/Finiszer
42.31
39.38
43.05
39.28
22.04
18.66
23.50
17.07
12.77
16.71
12.53
16.54
87.12
83.17
87.33
83.32
Monounsaturated – Jednonienasycone (MUFA)
22.75
25.02
20.76
26.26
Polyunsaturated – Wielonienasycone (PUFA)
64.37
58.15
66.57
57.06
Neutral or hypocholesterolemic – Neutralne
89.76
86.40
89.86
86.69
i hipocholesterolemiczne (DFA = C18:0 + UFA)
Hypercholesterolemic – Hipercholesterolemiczne
9.87
13.20
9.79
12.86
(OFA = C14:0 + C16:0)
PUFA n–6/n–3
1.92:1 2.11:1
1.83:1
2.30:1
Fatty acids – Kwasy tłuszczowe
D4
42.91
21.82
13.07
86.79
22.05
64.74
89.32
10.36
1.96:1
42.64
22.40
12.65
87.25
22.19
65.06
89.85
9.83
1.90:1
The fatty acids profiling of the lipids of the diets used in the experiment showed that in both Starter and Grower/Finisher diets the most of essential unsaturated fatty acids were found in feeds produced on the basis of wheat and triticale,
slightly less by about 2% in the control and D4, and the least diet were introduced
into wheat and barley, as well as maize and barley. In addition, these diets conActa Sci. Pol.
51
tained less palmitic acid and thus the share of hypercholesterolemic fatty acids
(OFA) decreased by nearly one fourth. The calculated ratio of polyunsaturated
fatty acids omega-6:omega-3 in all the mixtures was similar, but the most limited
(1.8:1) was in the diets containing wheat and triticale.
Table 4. Rearing results of broiler chickens
Tabela 4. Wyniki odchowu kurcząt brojlerów
Specification – Wyszczególnienie
Group – Grupa
D2
D3
SEM
D4
Body weight of bird, g – Masa ptaka, g:
initial – początkowa
39.10
39.50
39.10
39.00
38.90
0.23
21 day – 21 dzień
943a
847b
888ab
876ab
895ab
20.83
42 day – 42 dzień
2502B
2487C
2570A
2440C
2554A
9.39
Conversion per 1 kg of body weight gain – Zużycie na 1 kg przyrostu masy ciała:
feed, kg – paszy, kg
1–21 days – 1–21 dni
1.31a
1.30ab
1.24b
1.24b
1.30ab
0.02
22-42 days – 22–42 dni
1.98a
1.94a
1.81 b
1.87ab
1.85ab
0.09
1-42 days – 1–42 dni
1.78a
1.75a
1.64b
1.68ab
1.69ab
0.05
metabolizable energy, MJ – energii metabolicznej, MJ
Aa
ABab
Bb
Bb
ABa
1–21 days – 1–21 dni
17.15
16.23
15.61
15.73
16.79
0.30
22–42 days – 22–42 dni
26.32a
24.51ab
23.23b
24.29ab
24.21ab
0.90
1–42 days – 1–42 dni
23.51a
22.12ab
21.04b
21.79ab
22.12ab
0.53
crude fibre, g – białka ogólnego, g
1–21 days – 1–21 dni
291.8a
285.2ab
269.7b
273.3b
283.9ab
5.16
22–42 days – 22–42 dni
400.3a
380.5ab
359.3b
371.9ab
370.8ab
13.86
1–42 days – 1–42 dni
366.4a
354.8ab
334.7b
345.1ab
348.8ab
19.50
Means in rows with different letters differed significantly at a, b – P ≤ 0.05; A, B, C – P ≤ 0.01.
Wartości w wierszach oznaczone różnymi literami różnią się istotnie przy a, b – P ≤ 0,05; A, B, C – P ≤ 0,01.
K
D1
On the initial day of experiment, the average body weights of chickens in all
groups were similar (about 39 g), but after 3 weeks of rearing significant differences were noticed in this feature (Table 4). The highest (943 g) body weights
were attained by birds from the control group, and the lowest (847 g) by those
fed the diets prepared on the base of wheat and barley. The difference between
these groups was statistically significant (P ≤ 0.05). After the period of feeding
Grower/Finisher diet, more ample differences in the body weights were observed.
The chickens fed the mixtures with triticale (group D2 and D4) were highly significantly (P ≤ 0.01) heaviest, whereas the lowest body weights were attained by
birds receiving barley in diets (group D1 and D3). The rearing results of birds from
these groups are a confirmation of previous studies by other authors [Koreleski et
al. 2000, Janocha 2011, Stachurska 2013], who demonstrated that barley does not
belong to the cereals which may be used in broiler chickens feeding without a
decrease in the productive performance. A worse feed conversion ratio and, in
consequence, a decrease in weight gains are caused by an excessive amount of
non-starch polysaccharides, especially β-glucans, which was observed by other
authors [Silva and Smithard 2002, Lazaro et al. 2003]. In the first and the second
52
M. Osek et al.
period and, in consequence, after the 6-week rearing, the lowest feed conversion
ratio and nutrients components was observed in the chickens fed a diet containing wheat and triticale (group D2), with a significant (P ≤ 0.05) difference from
the control group. Santos et al. [2008] stated that triticale is worth being used
as a cereal in diets for broilers, since it yields higher body weight of birds, in
comparison with control chickens. According to Hermes and Johanson [2004] the
improvement of body weight gain of chickens is only achieved when the share of
triticale does not exceed 15% in the feed, and Zarghi and Golian [2009] prove that
even 40% triticale in maize-soybean mixtures does not reduce the body weight of
chickens.
Average body weight of chickens selected for slaughter did not differ statistically between groups, however the differences in cold carcasses were noticeable
(Table 5).
Table 5. Results of postslaughter analysis of broiler chickens
Tabela 5. Wyniki analizy rzeźnej kurcząt
Specification – Wyszczególnienie
K
D1
Group – Grupa
D2
D3
D4
SEM
Weight, g – Masa, g:
bird before slaughter – ptaka przed ubojem
2479
2500
2539
2502
2585
42.78
cold carcass – tuszki po schłodzeniu
1917Cb 1943ABCb 2006ABa 1932BCb 2022Aa 21.63
Dressing percentage, %
77.3b
77.7ab
79.0a
77.2b
78.2ab
0.35
Wydajność rzeźna, %
Proportion in cold carcass,% – Udział w tuszce schłodzonej, %:
total muscles – mięśni ogółem
45.75
46.89
46.12
46.56
47.02
0.50
including – w tym:
– breast – piersiowych
25.75
26.95
26.13
26.79
26.81
0.39
– thigh – udowych
11.45
11.83
11.85
11.49
11.82
0.19
– drumstic – podudzi
8.52
8.35
8.14
8.26
8.14
0.13
skin with subcutaneous fat
10.89
10.67
11.16
10.29
10.90
0.33
skóry z tłuszczem podskórnym
Aa
Bbc
Bc
ABab
ABa
abdominal fat – tłuszczu sadełkowego
1.86
1.56
1.51
1.75
1.78
0.68
The carcasses of birds fed diets containing triticale were significantly (P ≤ 0.05)
heavier from those of birds of the remaining groups, and in comparison with the
control group the difference was even highly significant (P ≤ 0.01). The highest
dressing percentage was attained by birds that received the mixtures with wheat
and triticale, and the lowest by those fed control mixtures as well as diets containing maize and barley. The difference between those groups in size of this coefficient raised by almost 2% points, but was statistically significant (P ≤ 0.05).
Zarghi and Golian [2009], who carried out studies on chickens Ross 308, did not
see a significant influence of a diet with different (0, 25, 50, 75, 100%) content of
triticale – applied as a replacement of maize – on the dressing percentage. Also
Acta Sci. Pol.
53
Osek et al. [2010] noticed that despite the fact that higher body weight before
slaughter of birds control group (mixtures with wheat and maize) in comparison
with receiving diet with wheat and triticale, maize and triticale or with only triticale (P ≤ 0.05), their dressing percentage were similar. The test mixtures in the
experiment had no statistically significant effect on the musculature of chickens,
despite that the share of total muscle carcasses was more (by 1.27% points) of
birds fed the mixtures containing of wheat and triticale, in compare to the control
chickens. This confirms the results obtained in earlier studies carried out by Osek
et al. [2010]. In turn Korver et al. [2004] showed a slightly larger share of the breast muscles of the chickens receiving a mixtures with triticale compared to birds
fed wheat. The least of abdominal fat was in the carcasses of chickens group D2
(wheat, triticale), and the most of the carcasses of birds controls (P ≤ 0.01). In
addition, it was found that the higher the level of P ≤ 0.05 share of abdominal fat
in the carcass were characterized by chickens fed mixtures, which accounted for
half of the raw cereal, maize (groups: K, D3 and D4). This fact combined with a
slightly higher energy value of feed, that these birds received.
Used in the rearing of chickens mixtures containing different combinations of
cereals did not affect the content of basic (exception – the level of protein in the
breast muscles) in both breast muscles and legs (Table 6).
Table 6. Content (%) of chemical basic nutrients in meat
Tabela 6. Zawartość (%) podstawowych składników chemicznych w mięsie
Specification
Wyszczególnienie
Dry matter
Crude ash
Crude protein
Crude fat
Sucha masa
Popiół surowy
Białko ogólne
Tłuszcz surowy
Breast muscles – Mięśnie piersiowe
K
25.66
1.34
23.56Aa
1.12
D1
25.23
1.18
23.23ABabc
1.08
Group
D2
25.18
1.17
22.90Bc
1.01
Grupa
D3
25.38
1.08
23.35ABab
0.93
D4
25.48
1.15
23.08ABbc
1.10
SEM
0.15
0.08
0.13
0.07
Leg muscles – Mięśnie nóg
K
25.12
1.09
19.30
4.68
D1
25.34
1.08
19.36
4.71
Group
D2
24.50
1.09
19.10
4.17
Grupa
D3
24.98
1.07
19.62
4.14
D4
24.26
1.00
19.04
3.90
SEM
2.60
0.12
0.28
0.36
Means in rows with different letters differed significantly at a, b – P ≤ 0.05; A, B – P ≤ 0.01.
Wartości w wierszach oznaczone różnymi literami różnią się istotnie przy a, b – P ≤ 0,05; A, B – P ≤ 0,01.
The most of crude protein found in muscle control chickens and the least in
birds fed with mixtures prepared on the basis of wheat and triticale. The difference
between these groups amounting to 0.66% points were statistically significant
(P ≤ 0.01). Less (P ≤ 0.05) protein also contained the breast muscles of chickens
from groups D1 and D4 compared to muscle control birds. No major differences in
54
M. Osek et al.
the chemical composition of meat of broiler chickens ROSS 308 has been shown
in studies Osek et al. [2010], which concerned the possibility of partial or total
replacement in mixtures of wheat and maize – triticale.
The studies were analyzed in addition to the basic nutrients of the fatty acid
profile in the lipid fraction of both muscles (Table 7).
Table 7. Share (% of sum) of fatty acids in lipid fraction of muscles
Tabela 7. Udział (% sumy) kwasów tłuszczowych we frakcji lipidowej mięśni
Fatty
Leg muscles – Mięśnie nóg
acids
Kwasy
SEM
SEM
tłuszK
D1
D2
D3
D4
K
D1
D2
D3
D4
czowe
C14:0
0.23a 0.22ab 0.19b 0.20ab 0.23ab 0.01
0.23
0.23
0.19
0.20
0.23
0.21
C14:1
0.04a 0.03b 0.02b 0.02b 0.03ab 0.03
0.07
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.06
0.01
C16:0
20.12 20.12 19.45 19.79 19.61 0.45 18.07 17.96 17.24 17.25 17.95
0.57
C16:1
2.46
2.19
1.87
1.63
2.05
1.06
2.55
2.63
2.45
2.20
2.54
0.37
C18:0
5.90Cc 6.60Babc 6.33BCbc 7.30Aa 6.87ABab 0.18
4.70
4.77
4.87
4.93
4.59
0.21
C18:1
32.13a 30.62ab 30.84ab 31.29ab 30.49b 0.46 31.25 29.82 30.07 29.53 30.08
0.84
C18:2
26.61b 27.14ab 28.01a 27.38ab 28.05a 0.85 28.86 29.78 29.57 31.48 29.80
0.95
C18:3
11.28a 11.72a 11.89a 10.90b 11.33a 0.38 13.46 13.84 14.62 13.31 13.64
0.54
C20:1
0.10
0.16
0.11
0.13
0.13
0.02
0.11
0.08
0.11
0.09
0.09
1.05
C20:2
0.09
0.12
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.01
0.06
0.06
0.07
0.07
0.07 0.005
C20:3
0.08AB 0.09AB 0.11A 0.12A
0.06B 0.01 0.05ab 0.07a 0.05ab 0.06ab 0.04b 0.007
C20:4
0.61
0.72
0.72
0.87
0.70
0.09 0.27b 0.34ab 0.36ab 0.40a 0.34ab 0.04
C22:0
0.09Bc 0.06b 0.14a 0.08b
0.13a 0.17 0.07B
0.12B 0.08B 0.15B 0.33A
0.02
Others
0.26
0.21
0.22
0.18
0.20
0.01
0.25
0.25
0.28
0.29
0.24
0.02
Inne
B
AB
B
A
AB
SFA
26.34 27.00 26.11 27.37 26.84
0.34 23.07 23.08 22.38 22.53 23.10
0.60
UFA
73.40a 72.90ab 73.67a 72.45b 72.96ab 0.36 76.68 76.67 77.34 77.18 76.66
0.60
MUFA 34.73a 33.00ab 32.84b 33.07ab 32.70b 0.53 33.98 32.58 32.67 31.86 32.77
1.03
PUFA 38.67 39.79 40.83 39.38 40.26 0.65 42.70 44.09 44.67 45.32 43.89
1.46
DFA
79.30 79.50 80.00 79.75 79.83 0.65 81.38 81.44 82.21 82.11 81.25
0.60
OFA
20.35 20.34 19.64 19.99 19.84 0.59 18.30 18.19 17.43 17.45 18.18
0.58
n–6 /
Bbc
Bbc
Bc
Aa
Bb
2.41:1 2.37:1 2.41:1 2.59:1 2.53:1 0.04 2.16:1 2.17:1 2.04:1 2.39:1 2.20:1
0.04
n–3
It was shown that triticale whether it is used in conjunction with wheat or
maize resulted in an increase of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the breast
muscle lipid. In addition, decreased (P ≤ 0.05) in which the level of saturated fatty
acids (SFA), in particular miristic acid (P ≤ 0.05) and palmitic (P > 0.05), included in hypercholesterolemic fatty acids. Of particular note is the effect of triticale
to increase share in the breast muscles of essential fatty acids [linoleic acid (C18:2 )
and linolenic acid (C18:3 )], with anti-atherosclerotic action and anti-cholesterol.
The fatty acid profile of the lipid fraction of leg muscles, no significant intergroup
differences that would have been confirmed as statistically significant. However,
as in the case of breast muscle was observed that a leg muscle lipid the chickens of
Acta Sci. Pol.
55
group D2 had the least saturated fatty acids (especially hypercholesterolemic), and
more polyunsaturated, which should be considered a positive. It is worth noting
that the applied feeding allowed to obtain in both muscle near perfect (recommended by the WHO, 2003) the ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acids from the omega-6:
omega-3, which in breast muscles averaged about 2.5:1, and leg muscles was even
narrower approximately 2.2:1. This is obviously a result of used linseed oil (3%)
and soybean (3%), because the use of soybean oil alone does not allow to obtain
this result. This is evidenced by research conducted by Osek et al. [2010], also on
hybrids chickens ROSS 308 and fed mixtures, which were also mixtures of different cereals (wheat and maize, wheat and triticale, maize and triticale as well as
self-triticale). They have been shown that, irrespective of the value of the composition cereal was very wide and ranged from 27.18 in the group with the triticale
to 28.73 where in mixture was maize and triticale.
There were no significant effects of the applied feeding on breast muscle pH
measured after 45 minutes of slaughter and after 24 hours of cooling, with the
exception of the group D4. Significant differences were found in the initial pH of
thigh muscles. The highest pH1 (6.33) were thigh muscles of chickens fed with
wheat and triticale (D2), slightly lower (6.28) in the group of birds D3 and D4,
and the lowest (6.15) in muscle control chickens. The difference in acidity of
thigh muscles between those groups has been confirmed as a highly statistically
significant (Table 8).
Meat of all meat chickens were normal, free of defects, since the amount of
pH1 was below 6.4, which qualifies as defective meat (DFD – dark, firm, dry).
Higher pH muscle (especially pH1 – breast muscles 6.33–6.53; thigh muscles
6.27–6.41) of chickens fed with mixtures which included the same or similar
compositions of cereals reported in studies Osek et al. [2010]. In turn Debut et
al. [2003] although analyzed the impact of the line and the pre-slaughter chickens
for meat pH, but it fed mixtures prepared from maize and wheat, they found that
after 15 minutes of slaughter mean pH in breast muscles ranged from 6.31–6.60,
and was more aligned in thigh and ranged 6.56–6.60, regardless of the tested factors.
Feeding chickens with mixtures containing different cereals also had an impact on the lightness (L*) color of the breast muscles. The brightest muscles chickens were fed with mixtures of wheat and triticale, and the darkest derived from
chickens fed the control and mixtures of maize and barley (P ≤ 0.05). However,
applied mixtures of cereals did not affect the brightness of the color of thigh muscle, but demonstrated much greater (P ≤ 0.01) in the direction of the colour
saturation of yellow, muscle of chickens fed with mixtures of wheat and barley,
and maize and barley compared to the muscles of the birds receiving mixtures
containing wheat and triticale. Sensory characteristics of both breast muscles as
56
M. Osek et al.
well as the thigh such as: flavour, juiciness, tenderness, palatability, did not depend
significantly on the composition of cereals placed on the mixtures.
Table 8. Physical and sensory properties of broiler chicken muscles
Tabela 8. Cechy fizyczne i organoleptyczne mięśni kurcząt brojlerów
Specification –Wyszczególnienie
Group – Grupa
K
D1
D2
D3
D4
SEM
Physical properties – Cechy fizyczne
pH1
6.17
6.23
6.18
6.18
6.24
0.04
pH24
6.03a
5.96ab
5.97ab
5.96ab
5.91b
0.02
Colour – Barwa CIE L*
47.83b
48.88ab
50.29a
48.04b
48.04ab
0.62
a*
3.42
3.83
3.77
3.77
3.55
0.23
b*
1.57
1.59
1.57
1.53
1.61
0.21
Sensory properties, score – Cechy organoleptyczne, pkt
Flavour –Zapach
4.5
4.8
4.5
4.8
4.6
0.15
Juiciness – Soczystość
4.6
4.7
4.4
4.5
4.4
0.23
Tenderness – Kruchość
4.7
4.8
4.3
4.6
4.7
0.16
Palatability – Smakowitość
4.6
4.8
4.5
3.7
4.5
0.23
Thigh muscles – Mięśnie udowe
Physical properties – Cechy fizyczne
pH1
6.15Bc
6.22ABbc 6.33Aa
6.28Aab
6.28Aab
0.03
pH24
6.38
6.36
6.42
6.39
6.37
0.02
Colour – Barwa CIE L*
47.78
48.68
48.20
47.36
47.30
0.47
a*
12.56
12.99
12.56
12.90
12.60
0.31
b*
2.95ABa
3.09Aa
2.23Bb
3.12Aa
2.53ABab 0.20
Sensory properties, score – Cechy organoleptyczne, pkt
Flavour –Zapach
4.7
4.8
4.6
4.7
4.8
0.14
Juiciness – Soczystość
4.7
5.0
4.5
4.8
4.7
0.16
Tenderness – Kruchość
4.7
4.8
4.6
4.8
5.0
0.15
Palatability – Smakowitość
4.7
5.0
4.7
4.8
4.8
0.14
Means in rows with different letters differed significantly at a, b – P ≤ 0.05; A, B – P ≤ 0.01.
Wartości w wierszach oznaczone różnymi literami różnią się istotnie przy a, b – P ≤ 0,05; A, B – P ≤ 0,01.
CONCLUSION
The results obtained in this experiment showed that mixtures with wheat and
triticale, oiled mixture with oils: soybean (3%) and linseed (3%) could be recommended in broiler chickens feeding, which allow on obtainment the most profitable rearing results of birds as well as the best dietetic values of meat.
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WSKAŹNIKI ODCHOWU I WARTOŚĆ DIETETYCZNA MIESA
˛
KURCZAT
˛ BROJLERÓW W ZALEŻNOŚCI OD KOMPOZYCJI ZBÓŻ
W MIESZANKACH NATŁUSZCZONYCH OLEJEM SOJOWYM
I LNIANYM
Streszczenie. Doświadczenie przeprowadzono na 200 kurcz˛etach brojlerach ROSS
308, które rozdzielono losowo do 5. równolicznych grup (K, D1, D2, D3, D4). Kurcz˛eta żywiono mieszankami Starter (1–21 dni) i Grower/Finiszer (22–42 dni) natłuszczonymi mieszanina˛ oleju sojowego (3%) i lnianego (3%). Czynnikiem różnicujacym
˛
grupy były 2 zboża wprowadzone do mieszanek w udziale 1:1 wg układu: grupa K
(kontrolna) – kukurydza i pszenica; grupa D1 – pszenica i j˛eczmień, grupa D2 – pszenica i pszenżyto, grupa D3 – kukurydza i j˛eczmień, grupa D4 – kukurydza i pszenżyto. Wykazano, że kurcz˛eta żywione mieszankami z pszenżytem w wieku 42 dni
uzyskały istotnie (P ≤ 0,01) wyższe masy ciała niż otrzymujace
˛ mieszanki z j˛eczmieniem. Istotnie (P ≤ 0,05) niższym zużyciem paszy w całym okresie odchowu w odniesieniu do grupy kontrolnej charakteryzowały si˛e kurcz˛eta żywione dietami zawieraja˛
cymi pszenic˛e i pszenżyto. Stosowane mieszanki nie wpłyn˛eły na umi˛eśnienie i udział
skóry z tłuszczem podskórnym w tuszkach, natomiast wykazano istotnie (P ≤ 0,05)
mniej tłuszczu sadełkowego w tuszkach kurczat
˛ żywionych mieszankami z udziałem
pszenicy i pszenżyta oraz pszenicy i j˛eczmienia w porównaniu do ptaków z pozostałych grup (K, D3 i D4). Nie stwierdzono wpływu żywienia na udział wi˛ekszości kwasów tłuszczowych w lipidach mi˛eśni nóg, natomiast w mi˛eśniach piersiowych ptaków
otrzymujacych
˛
mieszanki z pszenica˛ i j˛eczmieniem wykazano istotne obniżenie ilości
kwasu linolenowego oraz zwi˛ekszenie stearynowego. Nie odnotowano istotnego oddziaływania kompozycji zbóż w mieszankach na odczyn mi˛eśni, jak też na wyróżniki
smakowe, natomiast miały one wpływ na jego barw˛e.
Słowa kluczowe: jakość mi˛esa, kurcz˛eta brojlery, wyniki odchowu, zboża, żywienie
THE DAILY DISTRIBUTION OF MILKINGS
OF COWS IN FARMS EQUIPPED WITH THE
AUTOMATIC MILKING SYSTEM
Dariusz Piwczyński1 , Beata Sitkowska1 , Joanna Aerts2 ,
Magdalena Kolenda1
1 University
2 Lely
of Technology and Life Sciences, Bydgoszcz, Poland
East Ltd, Białe Błota, Poland
Abstract. The material of the study consisted of 140 cows of PHF breed, reared in
the farm equipped with the automatic milking system (AMS). Cows in different lactations (from 1 to 5) were reared in the period from May 2011 to April 2013. The daily
distribution of milkings (12, two-hours periods) was analyzed according to: cows’ age
(primiparous and multiparous), the average milk production per milking during the
whole lactation (<12.5 kg, ≥12.5 kg) and season (spring, summer, autumn, winter).
The statistical analysis was conducted with the use of the χ2 independence test. It
was noted that the daily distribution of milkings was statistically conditioned by all
analyzed factors. The first peak of the increased milking frequency was obtained during midday hours and the next one during late night hours, i.e. during hours that are
generally different from the typical milking hours in farms that do not use AMS. The
lowest milking frequency was recorded during milking hours typical for farms that do
not use the AMS.
Key words: automatic milking system, cattle, milk
INTRODUCTION
One of the most common reasons why farmers rearing dairy cattle decide to
use automatic milking system (AMS) is a desire to reduce an effort put into milking while increasing milking frequency and milk yield [Wagner-Storch, Palmer
2003, Svennersten-Sjaunja, Pettersson 2008].
Corresponding author – Adres do korespondencji: dr hab. inż. Dariusz Piwczyński, University of
Technology and Life Sciences, Department of Genetics and General Animal Breeding; Mazowiecka
28, 85-084 Bydgoszcz, Poland, e-mail: [email protected]
62
D. Piwczyński et al.
Most dairy cows reared in milking parlor are milked twice a day, while in intensive programmes milking frequency increases to three or even six times a day
[Stelwagen et al. 2013]. Erdman and Varner [1995], while summarizing the information about the milking frequency, have noted that the increase in the milking
frequency positively affects cow’s milk performance, irrespective of the level of
the animal’s production. In turn, limiting the milking number to one per day has
an exceptionally adverse effect – it reduces the milk yield by approximately 22%.
Such practice may also adversely affect the length of lactation and its course.
One of the AMS advantages is the opportunity to milk cows in times more
consistent with the animals natural rhythm, which is possible due to the continuous operation of the milking robot. Cows may visit the AMS with varying
frequency throughout the day during the entire lactation, which is especially pronounced among multiparous [Bach, Busto 2005].
The software installed in the AMS enables the full control of cow’s access to
automatic milking robots while taking into account their daily production level,
stage of lactation and the time that passed since the last milking. Technical capabilities of AMS allow to prevent too frequent milkings but also can motivate
animals to more frequent visits when it is necessary. One of such mechanisms is
the blockade which allows milking only after at least 3 hour after the previous
successful milking [Bruckmaier et al. 2001]. At the same time, AMS can monitor
animals and inform the farmer if the cow did not use the robot for more than 14
hours [Melin et al. 2006, Nixon et al. 2009].
Moreover, different feed concentrates are used in order to encourage cows to
more frequent visits in AMS [Bach et al. 2007, Madsen et al. 2010]. Those feed
concentrates are particularly important immediately after changing the milking
system to AMS. According to Deming et al. [2013], the increase of the frequency
of milkings, which entails an increase in milk yield, may be associated with the
reduction of the number of animals per one robot. Such reduction provides easier
access to feed and water. André et al. [2010] emphasize that increasing the frequency of milkings and the number of animals may increase the profitability of
AMS, however, this strategy is mainly connected to the milk yield. As pointed
out by Nixon et al. [2009], after the application of AMS, the intervals between
milkings may vary considerably and may, depending on the animal, be very short
or very long.
The aim of the present study was to determine the daily distribution of milkings of cows in farms equipped with the automatic milking system according to
cows age, average milk quantity per milking and season.
Acta Sci. Pol.
The daily distribution of milkings of cows in farms equipped. . .
63
The material of the study consisted of data collected from 140 cows of PHF
breed reared in a farm equipped with the automatic milking system (AMS) between May 2011 and April 2013. Cows used in the study were in different lactations (from 1 to 5). The average annual milk yield in the whole population was
9800 kg. Rearing and feeding conditions were the same for all animals throughout
the whole period. Cows were kept in free stalls and were fed with the use of the
PMR method. All of 161 502 milkings registered by AMS since the introduction
of the system (May, 2011) (except for the first month that was considered to be
an acclimatization period) were analyzed. During all lactations animals received
the same Partly Mixed Ration (PMR) offered ad libitum. The PMR consisted the
following feeds: maize silage, sugar beet pulp, haylage, straw, soy extracted meal
also vitamin and mineral supplements.
The daily distribution of milkings (12, two-hours periods) was evaluated according to cows’ age (primiparous and multiparous), the average milk quantity
per one milking (<12.5 kg and ≥12.5 kg) and milking season (spring, summer,
autumn, winter). The figures and tables provide information about the percentage
of milkings carried out in the defined time intervals. The statistical analysis was
performed using the χ2 independence test, with the use of the FREQ procedure
included in the SAS 9.4 software (SAS Institute Inc. 2013).
RESULTS
The χ2 independence test indicated the statistical (P ≤ 0.001) dependence
between cows’ age (primiparous and multiparous) and the time of day when a
milking occurred (Fig. 1). It was noted that primiparous preferred the time interval
between 10 p.m. and 12 p.m. and then between 10 a.m. and 12 a.m. (Fig. 1). The
frequency of milking for multiparous was the highest between 10 and 12 a.m.,
although it was also high between 8 and 10 p.m. In the case of both groups cows
used AMS the least frequent between 2 and 6 a.m. (on average less than 7% of all
milkings). What is more, it was found that primiparous less frequently used AMS
between 2 and 4 a.m. while multiparous between 4 and 6 a.m. At the same time,
the daily frequencies of milkings for both age groups were similar, for primiparous
– 2.79 and for multiparous – 2.81 (Table 1).
The average level of milk production per whole lactation was found to have a
statistical effect (P ≤ 0.001) on the time of milking (Fig. 2). It was noted that the
daily milking frequency obtained for cows that gave more than 12.5 kg of milk per
one milking was 2.63 (Table 1). This frequency was lower than the one obtained
for cows producing less that 12.5 kg of milk per one milking (2.89 per day).
64
Test χ2: value – wartość: 615.63; P< 0.0001
Fig. 1. The daily distribution of the number of milkings according to cows’ age
Rys. 1. Dobowy rozkład liczby dojów w zależności od wieku krów
Moreover, it was proven that animals producing less than 12.5 kg of milk per one
milking most frequently visited the AMS between 10 and 12 a.m. (12.06%) and
between 8 and 12 p.m. (in total – 20.16% of all visits) (Fig. 2). For cows producing
more than 12.5 kg of milk per one milking most milkings were recorded between
6 and 2 p.m. (more than 10%). Cows, irrespectively of the milk production level,
visited AMS the least frequently between 2 and 6 a.m. (Fig. 2).
The χ2 independence test indicated the statistical (P ≤ 0.001) relationship between milking season and the time of milking (Table 2). The differences between
seasons in respect of the milking frequency in various two-hours time periods ranged from 0.11 to 1.77 percentage points (Table 2). The greatest variation between
seasons i.e. more than 1.3 percentage points, was observed between 4 and 10 a.m.
The percentage of milkings recorded between 4 and 6 a.m. during the spring, summer and autumn seasons fluctuated in a fairly narrow range (5.54–5.59), while, the
share of milkings registered between 4 and 6 a.m. during winter was significantly
higher – 6.86%. It was noted that in the subsequent two-hours period cows visited
AMS more often during summer (8.61% of all milkings) than during other seasons
(7.25–7.99%). It was found that between 8 and 10 a.m. animals visited AMS the
most frequently during summer and autumn (approximately 9.2%), and the least
frequently during winter (8.22%) and spring (8.66%). The average number of milkings, in respect of the milking season, was as follows: for spring – 2.80, summer
– 2.74, autumn – 2.81, winter – 2.86 (Table 1).
Acta Sci. Pol.
65
Test χ2: value – wartość: 543.32; P< 0.0001
Fig. 2. The daily distribution of the number of milkings according to the level of milk
performance
Rys. 2. Dobowy rozkład liczby dojów w zależności od poziomu wydajności w laktacji
Table 1. The average number of milkings and the milk yield, depending on the selected
factors
Tabela 1. Przeciętna liczba dojów oraz uzysk mleka w zależności od wybranych
czynników
Factors
Czynniki
Lactation
Laktacja
Milk yield, kg
Wydajność mleka,
kg
Season
Pora roku
Level
Poziom
1
2
3
4
5
<12.5
≥ 12.5
Spring
Wiosna
Summer
Lato
Autumn
Jesień
Winter
Zima
Total
Łącznie
Number of milkings
Liczba dojów
n
51576
40941
21949
28023
19013
110365
Milkings per day
Liczba dojów na dobę
CV
͞x
2.79
30.47
2.91
29.87
2.80
31.36
2.72
31.42
2.75
33.99
2.89
31.44
Milk yield, kg
Wydajność mleka, kg
CV
͞x
11.15
32.19
11.65
34.98
12.11
36.45
11.86
37.53
12.75
36.36
10.58
32.42
51137
2.63
28.99
14.18
31.58
43417
2.80
33.24
11.82
35.64
35614
2.74
30.00
11.74
35.63
39467
2.81
29.65
11.65
34.62
43004
2.86
30.90
11.66
35.57
161502
2.81
31.10
11.72
35.38
66
Table 2. The daily distribution of the number of milkings according to milking season
Tabela 2. Dobowy rozkład liczby dojów w zależności od pory roku
Hours
Godziny
Spring – Wiosna
Summer – Lato
Autumn – Jesień
Winter – Zima
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
0≤2
3395
7.82
2781
7.81
3091
7.83
3097
7.20
2≤4
4≤6
6≤8
2822
2421
3470
6.50
5.58
7.99
2199
1991
3065
6.17
5.59
8.61
2624
2185
2862
6.65
5.54
7.25
2950
2979
3371
6.86
6.93
7.84
8≤10
3762
8.66
3522
9.89
3635
9.21
3536
8.22
10≤12
12≤14
4190
3850
9.65
8.87
3619
2758
10.16
7.74
4151
3284
10.52
8.32
4060
3787
9.44
8.81
14≤16
16≤18
18≤20
20≤22
22≤24
3585
3517
3868
4209
4328
8.26
8.10
8.91
9.69
9.97
2658
2844
3868
4209
4328
7.46
7.99
8.91
9.69
9.97
3176
3182
3598
3671
4008
8.05
8.06
9.12
9.30
10.16
3527
3481
3781
4120
4315
8.20
8.09
8.79
9.58
10.03
Test χ2: value – wartość: 359.74; P < 0.0001
DISCUSSION
In the whole tested population, cows used AMS approximately 2.78 times a
day. Similar study was carried out by Laurs and Priekulis [2011] who tested 62
cows. They noted that only 13–21% of cows used AMS four times a day, 31–
52% three times a day and 33–48% twice a day. The results of the present study
are in accordance with the findings of Castro et al. [2012] (cows used the AMS
2.7 ± 0.3 a day), as well as with Kozłowska et al. [2013] (depending on the
herd, 2.7–3.2 milkings per day). Castro et al. [2012] reported that the optimal
number of milkings per day ranges from 2.4 to 2.6 – these values are slightly
higher than those reported in the present study. Higher frequency of milkings than
in the present study was reported by Deming et al. [2013] (2.8 ± 0.4 times a day)
and by Madsen et al. [2010] (even 3 times a day). On the other hand, Gygax et
al. [2007], Wagner- Storch and Palmer [2003] and Bach et al. [2009] reported less
milkings per day (2.2–2.5). In the study of Hogeveen et. al. [2001], the average
interval between milkings was 9.2 hours and the milking frequency was 2.6 times
a day, while in the study of Mačuhová et. al. [2003] the interval was 11.3 ± 0,5
hours and the frequency was only 2.1 times a day.
In the present study the highest frequency of milkings (9.5%) was obtained
between 10 a.m. and 12 a.m., and between 8 p.m. and 12 p.m. The least visits
in AMS (5.93–6.56%) were recorded between 2 a.m. and 6 a.m. In turn, Bach et.
al. [2007] studied 115 individuals of Spanish Holstein cattle, that were divided
into two feeding groups. They found that the highest number of milkings took
Acta Sci. Pol.
67
place between 2 and 4 p.m. and between 8 and 9 p.m. In the study of Winter and
Hillerton [1995] milking robot was available for cows only between 6 a.m. and
12 p.m. The authors noted that in most cases cows used AMS three times a day,
especially during morning hours i.e. 6–7 a.m., around noon (11 a.m.–1 p.m.) and
in the afternoon (around 5 p.m.). Winnicki et al. [2010] showed that the time of
day in which milkings occur depend on the frequency of milkings. They observed
that cows that used AMS twice a day visited the robots mainly in the morning
(8–9 a.m.) and in the afternoon (5–7 p.m.), while animals that were milked more
times a day preferred to use AMS between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. and between 11
and 12 p.m. Moreover, Winnicki et al. [2010] noted that cows milked twice a day
used AMS least frequently at night (10 p.m.–2 a.m.) and in the morning (5–6 a.m.)
while cows milked three times a day used AMS least frequently at 6 o’clock and
between 4 and 6 p.m.
In the present study it was noted that the frequencies of milkings for primiparous and multiparous were similar. However, some differences between daily
distribution of milkings were observed between both groups. In particular this
concerned the activity of cows in the evening and at night. Compared to milkings
of multiparous, the highest number of milkings observed for primiparous took
place 2 hours later i.e. between 10 p.m. and midnight. The results of the present
study are in accordance with those reported by Carlström et al. [2013] who also
described the daily frequency of milkings. They reported that both primiparous
and multiparous visited AMS a similar number of times (2.48 and 2.45 a day, respectively). Bach et al. [2009], however, noted the differences between the average
number of visits of cows in the AMS depending on their age. In these studies, primiparous used the milking robot more often than multiparous (2.2 and 1.8 a day,
respectively).
In the present study the analysis of the daily distribution of the number of
milkings in respect of the milk yield was conducted. It was noted that cows producing less than 12.5 kg of milk per one milking visited AMS more often that
cows producing at least 12.5 kg of milk. Those results are in contrast to other
studies, where the increase in the milking frequency after the introduction of the
automatic milking system led to the increase in the milk yield [Wagner-Storch,
Palmer 2003, Madsen et al. 2010]. What is interesting, for animals with a higher
milk yield, the afternoon and night peaks of increased milking frequencies took
place 2 hours earlier than in the group of cows with lower yield. It should be
noted that the hours of the increased milking frequency were generally different
from the typical milking hours in farms that do not use AMS.
In the present study the frequency of milkings was the lowest during summer.
This is partly consistent with the work of Bava et al. [2012] and Speroni et al.
[2006] who reported that in farms that use AMS the milking frequency and milk
68
yield decreased in spring and summer. According to Czerniawska-Piatkowska
˛
et
al. [2012], the daily milk performance was higher for cows that were milked four
times a day during winter, spring and summer. The present research showed that
the influence of the milking season on the daily distribution of milkings was the
highest between 4 a.m. and 2 p.m. During other parts of day the differences did
not exceed 1 percentage point.
CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of the present study it was noted that the daily distribution of
milkings was statistically conditioned by cows’ age, average milk production in
one milking and milking season. The first peak of the increased milking frequency
was recorded during midday hours and the next one during late night hours, i.e.
during hours that are generally different from the typical milking hours in farms
that do not use AMS. The lowest milking frequency was recorded during milking
hours typical for farms that do not use the automatic milking system. The results
of the present study may be found helpful while determining milking time in farms
deprived of the AMS.
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DOBOWY ROZKŁAD DOJÓW KRÓW W GOSPODARSTWIE
WYPOSAŻONYM W AUTOMATYCZNY SYSTEMEM DOJU
Streszczenie. Badaniami obj˛eto grup˛e 140 krów b˛edacych
˛
w laktacjach od 1 do 5,
rasy PHF, utrzymywanych w gospodarstwie wyposażonym w automatyczny system
doju. Dobowy rozkład dojów (12 dwugodzinnych okresów) analizowano w zależności od: wieku zwierzat
˛ (pierwiastki i wieloródki), przeci˛etnej ilości oddawanego mleka
w doju w czasie całej laktacji (<12,5 kg, ≥12,5 kg) i pory roku (wiosna, lato, jesień,
zima). Statystyczna˛ analiz˛e danych przeprowadzono za pomoca˛ testu niezależności
χ2 . Stwierdzono, że dobowy rozkład dojów warunkowany był statystycznie wpływem
wszystkich analizowanych czynników. Pierwszy szczyt wzmożonej cz˛estotliwości oddawania mleka przypadał na godziny południowe, zaś kolejny na późnowieczorne, tj.
na godziny na ogół odmienne od typowych godziny doju w gospodarstwach niekorzystajacych
˛
z automatycznego systemu doju. Najmniejsza˛ aktywność krów w zakresie
cz˛estotliwości doju rejestrowano w typowych godzinach doju gospodarstw, które nie
korzystaja˛ z automatycznego systemu doju.
Słowa kluczowe: automatyczny system doju, bydło, mleko
Acta Sci. Pol.
AN ANALYSIS OF PPARGC1A GENE
POLYMORPHISM IN RELATION TO CARCASS
QUALITY IN PIC HYBRID FATTENERS
Daniel Polasik, Agnieszka Głodek, Artur Rybarczyk
West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
Abstract. The aim of this study was to determine the association between polymorphism located in exon 8 of PPARGC1A gene (Cys430Ser) and carcass quality in pigs.
Experiment was carried out on 350 PIC hybrid fatteners. Polymorphism was analyzed
using PCR-RFLP method. The frequency of genotypes was as follows: AA – 0.33,
AT – 0.57, TT – 0.1, however alleles: A – 0.62, T – 0.38. In the analyzed population
loss of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium was observed (P ≤ 0.01). Statistical analysis showed that only one of the evaluated traits was associated with individual PPARGC1A
genotypes. Cooling loss value for pig carcasses with TT genotype was statistically
significant (P ≤ 0.05) higher than observed in those with AA and AT genotypes.
Key words: carcass quality, hybrid fatteners, polymorphism, PPARGC1A gene
INTRODUCTION
In the last few years the progress in development of genetic markers associated
with economically important traits in livestock is observed. In pigs production
most important traits are meat quality and fatness. Hundreds of QTL (quantitative
trait loci) for meat and carcass traits were mapped in swine genome [pigQTLdb].
One of them is region located on chromosome 8 (SSC8), where PPARGC1 gene
has been mapped [Jacobs et al. 2006].
The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1 (PPARGC1, PGC-1α) is a transcriptional coactivator which regulates genes associated with energy metabolism. It influences thermogenesis, mitochondrial biogenesis, adipogenesis and muscle fiber-type conversion [Lin et al. 2002, Puigserver,
Corresponding author – Adres do korespondencji: dr inż. Daniel Polasik, West Pomeranian
University of Technology, Szczecin, Department of Genetics and Animal Breeding, ul. Doktora
Judyma 6, 71-466 Szczecin, Poland, e-mail: [email protected]
72
D. Polasik et al.
Spiegelman 2003]. PPARGC1 gene location, wide functions and genetic variations make its good candidate gene for meat and carcass traits in pigs.
A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in exon 8 of PGC-1α gene causing
amino acid substitution at position 430 (Cys to Ser) was for a first time analyzed
by Kunej et al. [2005]. They reported difference in allelic distribution between
Chinese and Western pig breeds. Further investigations showed that Cys430Ser
polymorphism is associated with fat deposition, meat and muscle fibers traits.
The aim of this study was to analyze Cys430Ser polymorphism in relation to
ten carcass quality traits in PIC hybrid fatteners.
Investigations were carried out on 350 PIC hybrid fatteners derived from cross
between a PIC377 paternal line and Camborough22 maternal line. Animals were
kept in three different farms. Feeding and rearing conditions for all mentioned
farms were equalized – dry, granulated fodder derived from the same feed manufacturer given ad libitum and shallow bedding.
DNA was isolated from longissimus lumborum collected after slaughtering by
use High Pure PCR Template Preparation Kit (Roche). PCR-RFLP method was
applied to estimate individual genotypes of PPARGC1A gene. DNA amplification
were carried out by use following primer sequences [Kunej et al. 2005]:
− forward 5’ TAA AGA TGC CGC CTC TGA CT 3’
− reverse 5’ CTG CTT CGT CGT CAA AAA CA 3’
PCR was performed in total volume 15 µl containing: 40-50 ng of DNA template, 0.2 mmol of dNTPs mix, 1×PCR buffer with z NH4, 10 mmol of each
primer, 2.5 mmol Mg2+ , 0.75 U Taq polymerase (Fermentas), loading dye and
molecular grade water. Following thermal profile was applied: initial denaturation 95°C/5 min, 30 cycles of 95°C/30 s, 62°C/30 s, 72°C/30 s and final elongation 72°C/7 min. Obtained amplicons were digested by use AluI enzyme in 37°C
overnight. Restriction fragments were separated in 1.5% agarose gels stained with
ethidium bromide. After electrophoresis gels were visualized in UV light and recorded by use Vilber Lourmat system.
For population genetics following parameters were calculated using PowerMarker ver. 3.25 [Liu, Muse 2005]: genotypes and alleles frequency, mean heterozygosity, gene diversity, Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (χ2 ) and PIC (polymorphic
information content).
For association study following parameters were measured:
− live weight and hot carcass weight [kg];
− meatiness [%], backfat thickness and thickness muscle [mm] – was measured with a Sydel CGM optic-needle apparatus on the left half-carcasses;
Acta Sci. Pol.
An analysis of PPARGC1A gene polymorphism . . .
73
− cooling loss [%] – was calculated based on the difference between the hot
and cold carcass weights, expressed as per cent of the hot carcass weight;
− total protein [%] – estimated by use Kjeldahl method [AOAC 2003];
− intramuscular fat content [%] – estimated by extraction with ethyl ether
(Soxhlet method) [AOAC 2003];
− ash [%] – estimated through combustion of meat sample at 550°C [AOAC
2003];
− dry matter [%] – estimated through drying of sample at 105°C to solid mass
after denaturation of protein by 96% ethyl alcohol [AOAC 2003];
− marbling [score] – estimated by five trained persons on fresh meat slices.
5 point scale was applied where: 1 point – lowest fat content, 5 points –
highest fat content in muscle;
Association between PPARGC1A gene polymorphism and performance traits
were calculated using the Statistica software, ver. 8.0 (StatSoft Inc.) with GLM
multiple factor mixed model. The following model was applied:
Yijkl = µ + ai + b j + ck + eijkl
where: Yijkl – analyzed trait, µ – overall mean, ai – effect of PPARGC1A genotype
(1..3), b j – effect of sex(1..2) , ck – effect of farm (1..3), eijkl – random error.
RESULTS
In the studied population of pigs three genotypes and two alleles of PPARGC1A
gene were present with following frequency: AA – 0.33, AT – 0.57, TT – 0.1, A –
0.62, T – 0.38. Values for mean heterozygosity and expected heterozygosity (gene
diversity) were as follows: 0.57, 0.47. The comparison between the number of observed and the theoretical number of genotypes revealed significant (P ≤ 0.01)
difference what means that analyzed population was not in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. PIC value for PPARGC1A gene amounted 0.36.
Means for estimated performance traits in relation to PPARGC1A genotypes
are given in the Table 1. Statistical analysis showed that only cooling loss was
associated with different gene variants. Animals with genotype TT characterized
by statistically (P ≤ 0.05) higher value of this trait in comparison to those with
AA and AT genotypes. Other analyzed traits had similar values or not differed
statistically significant between PPARGC1A genotypes.
DISCUSSION
Genetic markers are valuable tools used by animal breeding. They allow to
estimate the production potential in short time as distinct to conventional methods
74
D. Polasik et al.
Table 1. Mean values with standard deviations (SD) for carcass quality traits and meat
composition in PIC pigs in relation to PPARGC1A genotypes
Tabela 1. Wartości średnie wraz z odchyleniami standardowymi (SD) dla cech jakości
tuszy i składu mi˛esa u świń PIC w odniesieniu do genotypów PPARGC1A
Genotype – Genotyp
AA
AT
TT
Live weight, kg – Waga żywa, kg
114.24 ± 9.36 112.51 ± 8.53 113.75 ± 8.59
Hot carcass weight, kg – Masa tuszy ciepłej, kg
87.09 ± 7.31 85.74 ± 6.68 86.48 ± 6.39
0.98b ± 0.21
0.99b ± 0.17
1.13a ± 0.19
Cooling loss, % – Straty chłodzenia, %
Meatiness, % – Mi˛esność, %
56.43 ± 2.63 56.11 ± 2.84 56.03 ± 2.44
Backfat thickness, mm – Grubość słoniny, mm
14.61 ± 3.57 15.10 ± 3.58 15.56 ± 3.58
Thickness muscle, mm – Grubość mi˛eśnia, mm
57.21 ± 5.65 57.16 ± 5.82 57.92 ± 5.52
Total protein, % – Białko ogólne, %
22.50 ± 0.66 22.46 ± 0.64 22.47 ± 0.72
Intramuscular fat, % – Tłuszcz śródmi˛eśniowy, %
2.07 ± 0.57
2.05 ± 0.69
2.05 ± 0.72
Ash, % – Popiół, %
1.10 ± 0.06
1.11 ± 0.05
1.12 ± 0.05
Dry matter, % – Sucha masa, %
25.68 ± 0.73 25.64 ± 0.69 25.67 ± 0.84
Marbling, score – Marmurkowatość, pkt
1.08 ± 0.25
1.13 ± 0.37
1.14 ± 0.28
Trait – Cecha
a, b
a, b
Mean values marked by different superscript differ significantly at P ≤ 0.05.
Wartości średnie oznaczone różnymi literami różnia˛ si˛e istotnie na poziomie P ≤ 0,05.
based on phenotypic traits. One of these markers in case of pig production is the
PPARGC1A gene. The aim of the first investigations concerning this gene was to
determine its chromosomal position, find polymorphic sites and compare genotype frequency in Western and Chinese pig breeds [Jacobs et al. 2005, Kunej et al.
2006] . Analysis of Cys430Ser polymorphism showed that in six Chinese breeds
A allele was absent; it appeared only in Taoyuan breed in heterozygous form with
frequency 0.25. In Western pig it occurred more often and ranged from 0.33 to
0.71. Similar frequency to PIC hybrid pigs was found in Yorkshire, Krskopolje
and Duroc breeds (0.54–0.67). Margeta et al. [2006] on the other hand analyzed
distribution of PPARGC1A Cys430Ser polymorphism in Croatian autochthonous
pig breeds. Interestingly in Turopolje pigs T allele was absent, however in Black
Slavonian its frequency was higher than observed in our research – 0.56. Another
studies focused on searching for association between PPARGC1A gene variants
and performance traits in pigs. Flisar et al. [2006] found a significant effect of
Cys430Ser polymorphism on phenotypic and breeding values for backfat. In population of Slovenian Landrace breed the thickest backfat had homozygotes AA
and the thinnest homozygotes TT, however in Large White breed this relation
was reversed. In our results thickest backfat was observed in animals with TT
genotypes, but difference was not confirmed statistically. Slovenian Large White
pigs however characterized by similar frequency to that observed in PIC fatteners
(0.64–0.68). Association between Cys430Ser variants was also investigated by
Acta Sci. Pol.
75
Stachowiak et al. [2007] in relation to nine fatness traits in Polish Large White,
Polish Landrace breeds and line 990. Obtained results showed that T/A substitution was related to feed conversion in Polish Large White (P = 0.02). Authors
also estimated allele distribution in additional three breeds. Allele A appeared
with similar frequency to PIC fatteners in Duroc breed (0.67); in others it was
lower except Line 990 (0.82). Another report showed lack of association between
PPARGC1 polymorphism and intramuscular fat content (IMF), backfat and leaf
fat in Landrace-Duroc-Yorkshire population [Erkens et al. 2009]. These results are
consistent with ours where backfat thickness and IMF was not related with PGC1α genotypes. It may be partially explained by low variability of these traits which
amounted 14.61–5.56 and 2.05–2.07 respectively. By contrast, subsequent investigations proved that Cys430Ser variants were associated with IMF (P ≤ 0.01), area
and perimeter of muscle fibre in Tibetan pigs. Animals with TT genotypes characterized by higher IMF (4.305) in comparison to those with genotypes AA (2.070)
and AT (2.816) [Liu et al. 2011]. It was not only one investigation which described analysis of muscle fibre characteristics. Kim et al. [2010] studied these traits
more detailed including meat quality in Yorkshire pigs and found that Cys430Ser
genotypes significantly affected number (P ≤ 0.05) and area (P ≤ 0.01) of type I
muscle fibre and as well as muscle pH (P ≤ 0.001) and lightness (P ≤ 0.01). Last
experiment indicated that PPARGC1A polymorphism was associated with pH and
cooking loss in a F2 Duroc × Pietrain cross and with pH values in Italian Large
White and Italian Landrace populations (P ≤ 0.05) [Gandolfi et al. 2011].
CONCLUSIONS
Obtained results showed that polymorphism in PPARGC1A gene is associated
with cooling loss in PIC hybrid pigs. Allele A seems to be favorable for this trait
in homo- as well in heterozygous form.
REFERENCES
AOAC, 2003. Official methods of analysis of AOAC international (17th ed.). Gaithersburg,
MD USA: Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) International.
Erkens T., Rohrer G.A., van Zeveren A., Peelman L., 2009. SNP detection in the porcine
PPARGC1A promoter region and 3’UTR and an association analysis in a LandraceDuroc-Yorkshire population. Czech J. Anim. Sci., 54 (9), 408–416.
Flisar T., Kunej T., Kovac M., Dovc P., 2006. Effect of PPARGC-1 gene on backfat thickness in pigs. Acta Agriculturae Slovenica 88 (1), 11–18.
Gandolfi G., Cinar M.U., Ponsuksili S., Wimmers K., Tesfaye D., Looft C., Jüngst H.,
Tholen E., Phatsara C., Schellander K., Davoli R., 2011. Association of PPARGC1A
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and CAPNS1 gene polymorphisms and expression with meat quality traits in pigs.
Meat Sci., 89 (4), 478–485.
Jacobs K., Rohrer G., Van Poucke M., Piumi F., Yerle M., Barthenschlager H., Mattheeuws M., Van Zeveren A., Peelman L.J., 2006. Porcine PPARGC1A (peroxisome proliferative activated receptor gamma coactivator 1A): coding sequence, genomic organization, polymorphisms and mapping. Cytogenet Genome Res., 112 (1–2), 106–113.
Kim J.M., Lee K.T., Lim K.S., Park E.W., Lee Y.S., Hong K.C., 2010. Effects of p.C430S
polymorphism in the PPARGC1A gene on muscle fibre type composition and meat
quality in Yorkshire pigs. Anim.Genet., 41 (6), 642–645.
Kunej T., Wu X.-L., Berlic T.M., Michal J.J., Jiang Z., Dovc P., 2005. Frequency distribution of a Cys430Ser polymorphism in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptorgamma coactivator-1 (PPARGC1) gene sequence in Chinese and Western pig breeds.
J Anim Breed Genet., 122 (1) 7–11.
Lin J., Wu H., Tarr P.T., Zhang C.Y., Wu Z., Boss O., Michael L.F., Puigserver P., Isotani
E., Olson E.N., Lowell B.B., Bassel-Duby R., Spiegelman B.M., 2002. Transcriptional
co-activator PGC-1[alpha] drives the formation of slow-twitch muscle fibres, Nature,
418 (6899) 797–801.
Liu R., Li J.L., Lv X.B., 2011. Association of PGC-1α Gene with Intramuscular Fat
Content and Muscle Fiber Traits and Gene Expression in Tibetan Pigs. J. Anim. Vet.
Adv., 10 (17), 2301–2304.
Liu K., Muse S.V., 2005. Powermarker: an integrated analysis environment for genetic
marker analysis. Bioinformatics, 1 (9), 2128–2129.
Margeta V., Frajman P., Kralik G., Dovč P., 2006. Determination of PPARGC1 Cys430Ser
polymorphism and MHS genotype in Croatian autochthonous pig breeds. Acta Agraria
Kaposváriensis 10 (2), 333–339.
Puigserver P., Spiegelman B.M., 2003. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma
coactivator 1 alpha (PGC-1 alpha): transcriptional coactivator and metabolic regulator.
Endocr. Rev., 24 (1) 78–90.
Stachowiak M., Szydlowski M., Cieslak J., Switonski M., 2007. SNPs in the porcine
PPARGC1a gene: interbreed differences and their phenotypic effects. Cell Mol. Biol.
Lett., 12(2), 231–239.
Acta Sci. Pol.
77
ANALIZA POLIMORFIZMU GENU PPARGC1A W ODNIESIENIU DO
CECH TUSZY TUCZNIKÓW HYBRYDOWYCH PIC
Streszczenie. Celem niniejszych badań było wykazanie zależności pomi˛edzy polimorfizmem zlokalizowanym w 8 eksonie genu PPARGC1A (Cys430Ser) a cechami
tuszy świń. Eksperyment został przeprowadzony na 350 tucznikach hybrydowych
PIC. Polimorfizm analizowano z użyciem metody PCR-RFLP. Frekwencja genotypów była nast˛epujaca:
˛ AA – 0.33, AT – 0.57, TT – 0.1, natomiast alleli: A – 0.62,
T – 0.38. W analizowanej populacji zaobserwowano zachwianie równowagi genetycznej Hardy’ego-Weinberga (P ≤ 0,01). Analiza statystyczna wykazała, że tylko
jedna z ocenianych cech była powiazana
˛
z poszczególnymi genotypami PPARGC1A.
Wartość strat chłodzenia (%) dla świń z genotypem TT była statystycznie istotnie
(P ≤ 0,05) wyższa niż obserwowana u osobników z genotypami AA i AT.
Słowa kluczowe: jakość tuszy, gen PPARGC1A, polimorfizm, tuczniki hybrydowe
EVALUATION OF SELECTED PHYSICAL
PARAMETERS OF AIR IN AUTUMN IN STABLES
OF NOWIELICE STUD FARM
Agnieszka Prokulewicz, Agnieszka Tomza-Marciniak
West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
Abstract. The aim of this study was to evaluate the temperature and humidity of
air and light conditions in autumn in SK Nowielice stables. This study did not reveal
any aberrancies from proper zoohygienic standards and thus did not decrease in horse
welfare in autumn.
Key words: horse, physical air parameters, stable
INTRODUCTION
Microclimatic conditions in stable are some of the most important factors affecting horse welfare and profitability of raising and breeding. Apart from physical, chemical and biological parameters in the livestock buildings, also other
factors clearly influence the stable’s microclimate, such as outdoor climate, stocking, heat insulation and ventilation [Wolski 1988].
Previous studies on this issue showed numerous aberrancies from normative
conditions of horse breeding [Pietrzak, Tietze 1999, Kupczyński, Mazurkiewicz
2004, Bombik et al. 2009, 2011 a, 2011 b].
The air temperature changes according to the time of day, season and current
insolation [Pirkelmann et al. 2010]. Within the livestock building, with stablegrazing husbandry, the highest temperature is noticed in the morning and the lowest occurs in the afternoon. Distribution of temperature indoor is always unequal. The space under the ceiling is the warmest while lairs are usually the coldest
Corresponding author – Adres do korespondencji: dr Agnieszka Tomza-Marciniak, West
Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Department of Animal Reproduction
Biotechnology and Environmental Hygiene, Doktora Judyma 6, 71-466 Szczecin, Poland, e-mail:
[email protected]
80
A. Prokulewicz and A. Tomza-Marciniak
locations inside a stable. Also the temperature against the walls may differ from
the one in central parts of building even up to 5◦ C [Kośla 2011].
Horses have a very high muscle mass, which protects it from freezing. Feeling
of cold (with low air temperature and high relative humidity) causes increased
blood flow in muscles to escalate inner temperature and ensure appropriate activity
of main organs [Jurd 1999].
Kolbuszewski and Rokicki [1988] report that an optimal temperature range
for horses must take into account breed, sex, age, physiological status and type of
usage. Horses perform better with lower temperatures than with the heat. However
in seriously unfavorable conditions the problem with excessive temperature lost
or thermal recirculation may appear. This effect is intensified particularly by simultaneous low air temperature and high humidity.
Appropriate temperature in a stable determines proper intake and consumption
of food, which influences on equine healthiness. Temperatures exceeding optimal
values impair fertility in horses. Organism overheating causes i.a. reduction in
semen quality, suppression of estrus and decreased libido [Betlejewska-Kadela
1990].
Horses, according to climatic adaptation, may exist in wide range of temperatures. Fiedorowicz [2007 b] recommends 5–15◦ C as an optimal temperature for
stables. The wider range from 5 to 28◦ C is suggested in the Regulation of Ministry
of Agriculture and Rural Development (Rozporzadzenie
˛
Ministra Rolnictwa i Rozwoju Wsi z dnia 2 września 2003 r. w sprawie minimalnych warunków utrzymywania zwierzat
˛ gospodarskich [DzU nr 167, poz. 1629, z późn. zm.].
Horses, moist floors and excrements (feces and urine) are main humidity sources in a stable [Fiedorowicz 2004 a]. The amount of water vapor incoming into
a stable with fresh air equals from 5 to 15% of total water vapor inside a building.
Wet surfaces vaporization may reach even up to 25% of physiological evaporation
[Dobrzański, Kołacz 1996]. A total absence or malfunction of ventilation system,
too high stocking density and improper stable construction are common causes of
exceeded norms for relative humidity [Fiedorowicz et al. 2004 a]. High water content in the air with low temperature cause decrease in appetite, cold, rheumatism
as well as bronchi and lung diseases [Fiedorowicz, Łojek 2002].
Illumination is an important factor for microclimate in livestock buildings because it influences on animals vitality and productivity as well as technical condition of a building. Upon illumination the temperature and humidity of air change
[Marciniak 2008]. The impact of lighting on animals manifests in increased humoral immunity. This process results in growth of γ-globulin fraction in blood serum
and cellular immunostimulation likewise. [Fitko et al. 1991]. Minimal illumination calculated from the ratio of glazed window area to floor surface (W:F) should
equal: 1:20 for replacement and not less than 1:15 for older horses. Artificial li-
Acta Sci. Pol.
Evaluation of selected physical parameters of air in autumn. . .
81
ghting factor in stables lit with light bulbs shall reach 14 to 20 W · m−2 for farm
horses and 8 to 16 W · m−2 for workhorses. The level of stable illumination depends not only on number and power of artificial light sources but also on their
type and location [Fiedorowicz et al. 2004 a].
It should be noted that both in European and Polish legislation no direct act
about equine husbandry is present. This suggests that, according to EU directive,
individual standards for horses should be developed.
The aim of this study was to evaluate selected physical air parameters in autumn in stables of SK Nowielice.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Horse Stud Farm Nowielice is currently breeding Polish Half Bred Horses
(SP). Our study was conducted in 7 stables located within the farm. In analyzed
buildings 89 horses altogether were kept, including: 12 mares with colts, 25 individuals from the replacement group and 40 mature, sport horses. First object was
a box-stall stable for broodmares. According to weather conditions these animals
were kept in the open yard. Objects 2 and 3 were freestalls for the replacement
group, which was also allowed to use the open yard and a grassy paddock. Another
object was a sport stable with boxes located in both sides of a building no. 4 for 7
horses which did not use paddock. These animals were ridden for at least 1 hour
daily. Stable no. 5 with unilateral boxes was prescribed for 5 sport horses. Object
6 contained 4 boxes located bilaterally for sport- and reproduction stallions. The
last building no. 7 was the biggest stable containing 27 boxes.
The temperature and humidity in autumn were measured with BIOTERM
144609 thermo-hygrometer. Measurements were conducted three times a day at
7.00, 13.00 and 19.00, in three different locations (at the entrance, in the middle
and at the exit of a building) at the height of a horseback. Photoclimatic conditions
were estimated by calculating levels of: (a) natural illumination (glazed window
area to floor surface ratio; W:F) and (b) artificial illumination (number and power
of light bulbs assigned to 1 m2 surface; W · m−2 ).
Air humidity and temperature are the most relevant microclimatic parameters
to evaluate in equine quarters. However numerous deviations from correct levels
of these parameters are observed. Farmers usually do not realize the fact that air
moisture capacity decreases with its temperature, respectively [Fiedorowicz et al.
2004 b]. Vapor condensation on construction elements in winter is an exact in-
82
dicator of unacceptable excess of optimal air humidity. Such situation results in
stable construction decay and supports fungal development [Fiedorowicz 2007].
As shown in Table 1, the highest temperature in all objects was noted in midday. During that time horses from stables 1, 2 and 3 were kept in open yard.
Moreover, the highest external temperature was noticed at that time of the day,
which indicates a high correlation between external and internal temperature.
Measurements conducted at 7.00 and 13.00 showed highest values of tested parameter in buildings in which no animals were present. Maximal difference between average external and internal temperature was observed in evening hours.
According to Pirkelmann et al. [2010] the difference between mentioned values
shall not exceed more than 3◦ C.
Table 1. Air temperature (°C) in following stables
Tabela 1. Temperatura powietrza (°C) w stajniach
Parameter
Parametr
Object no. 1 – Obiekt nr 1
Average for hour of measurement
Średnie dla godzin pomiarowych
Hour of measurement
Godzina pomiaru
7.00
13.00
19.00
Average for objects
Średnie dla
obiektów
11.2
11.4
12.0
10.7
10.7
10.2
10.7
14.8
14.6
14.9
14.2
14.1
13.8
13.4
11.5
11.9
12.4
12.8
12.7
12.4
11.5
12.5
12.6
13.1
12.6
12.5
12.1
11.9
11.0
14.3
12.2
Morgan [1997] and Morgan et al. [1998] suggest to maintain temperature in
a stable at a level of 5 to 25◦ C in summer and 8 to 10◦ C in winter, respectively.
In all objects analyzed the temperature did not differ significantly from recommended standards of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Directive
of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of the Republic of Poland, 02
September 2003, about the minimal livestock animals-keeping standards). Similar
results were obtained by Bombik et al. [2011 a] who concluded that majority of
physical air parameters like: temperature, relative humidity, air speed and refrigeration reached minimal values for horse breeding.
With reference to Directive of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
(Directive of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of the Republic of
Poland, 02 September 2003, about the minimal livestock animals-keeping standards), concerning minimal conditions of horse breeding the highest acceptable
air humidity in stable should not exceed 80%. Fiedorowicz [2007] says that relative humidity recommended in EU shall achieve 70%.
Acta Sci. Pol.
83
Within examined stables average relative humidity for hours of measurement
ranged between 75.0 to 79.5%. The lowest value was noted in objects 5 and 6 in
morning hours (Table 2). Values from 80 to 81% were detected in stables no. 1, 2,
3 and 7.
Table 2. Relative humidity (%) in following stables
Tabela 2. Wartości wilgotności względnej powietrza (%) w stajniach
Hour of measurement
Godzina pomiaru
7.00
13.00
19.00
Average for objects
Średnie dla
obiektów
1
2
3
77.3
76.3
77.0
78.7
78.0
79.3
81.0
80.7
80.0
79.0
78.3
78.8
4
5
6
7
Average for hour of measurement
Średnie dla godzin pomiarowych
74.3
71.3
71.0
78.0
77.0
75.3
75.7
79.7
78.0
77.3
78.7
81.0
76.4
74.6
75.1
79.6
77.3
78.7
81.0
79.0
Object no.
Obiekt nr
According to Fiedorowicz and Łojko [2002] and Fiedorowicz [2007] recommendations concerning illumination for horses in Poland and EU differ slightly. Directive of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Directive of
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of the Republic of Poland, 28.06.
2010, about minimal livestock animals-keeping conditions different from the protection standards defined by european directives) concerning acceptable breeding
conditions for animals not specified in European regulations [Dz.U. nr 116, poz.
778] does not determine a minimal illumination level in a stable. In Poland 7% illumination is suggested (glazed window area to floor surface ratio) whereas in EU
5–7% illumination is recommended with limitation that there should be a 2.5–3.0
W · m−2 source of light inside a building [Fiedorowicz, Łojek 2002, Fiedorowicz
2007]. Pirkelmann et al. [2010] states that for replacement W:F ratio may reach
even 1:20. Kośla [2011] points an optimal power of tungsten light in stable should
be equal to 8 W · m−2 for workhorses and up to 16 W · m−2 for mares with colts.
Maintenance system in stable no. 1 (pregnant and mother mares) did not allow
to install such powerful lighting because of mares’ welfare before parturition,
which usually occurs at night. They feel safest in dusk [Prawocheński 2010]. Level
of illumination should be high for colts however natural light is more proper than
artificial which shall only ensure visibility and allow infants to rest.
This research showed that only object no. 1 with mares and colts fulfilled
Polish requirements for natural illumination. European recommendations concerning both natural and artificial illumination were complied by stables no. 1, 4 and
84
5. Construction of all objects definitely provided enough amount of natural light
mainly due to entrance gates which were opened during the day. Moreover in stables with lowest natural illumination level (objects 2 and 3) the highest intensity
of artificial illumination was noticed (3.0 W · m−2 ). From dawn to dusk horses
from stables 1, 2 and 3 were kept in the open yard.
Table 3. Natural and artificial illumination in following stables
Tabela 3. Wartości oświetlenia naturalnego i sztucznego w stajniach
Object no.
Obiekt nr
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Stable surface, m²
Powierzchnia
stajni, m²
Glazed window area,
m²
Oszklona
powierzchnia okien,
m²
428
100
100
121
81
112
437
30.20
2.71
2.71
5.50
3.50
5.50
21.50
Natural
Illumination, W ∙ m–²
Oświetlenie naturalne,
W ∙ m–²
W:F
%
1:14
1:37
1:37
1:22
1:23
1:20
1:20
7
3
3
5
4
5
5
Artificial illumination,
W ∙ m–²
Oświetlenie sztuczne,
W ∙ m–²
1.2
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
1.8
1.4
CONCLUSIONS
Our studies conducted in autumn showed that selected physical air parameters
in SK Nowielice objects complied the zoohygienic requirements. Average temperature within the stables ranged between 10.2 to 14.9◦ C while relative humidity
ranged between 71 to 81%. Natural and artificial illumination recommendations
are varied and depend on structural condition of individual building.
This research showed that physical air parameters in examined objects did not
affect on equine welfare in autumn.
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Ministra Rolnictwa i Rozwoju Wsi z dnia 2 września 2003 r. w sprawie
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˛
Ministra Rolnictwa i Rozwoju Wsi z dnia 28 czerwca 2010 w sprawie
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2010, about minimal livestock animals-keeping conditions different from the protection standards defined by european directives.] [Dz.U. Nr 116, poz. 778] [in Polish].
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buildings]. PWN Warszawa [in Polish].
OCENA WYBRANYCH PARAMETRÓW FIZYCZNYCH POWIETRZA
W OKRESIE JESIENNYM W STAJNIACH STADNINY KONI
NOWIELICE
Streszczenie. Celem badań była ocena temperatury i wilgotności wzgl˛ednej powietrza oraz oświetlenia w okresie jesiennym w stajniach SK Nowielice. Przeprowadzone
badania w stajniach SK Nowielice nie wykazały odchyleń analizowanych parametrów
od norm zoohigienicznych i nie powodowały obniżenia dobrostanu koni w okresie jesiennym.
Słowa kluczowe: fizyczne parametry powietrza, koń, stajnia
Acta Sci. Pol.
SPIS TREŚCI
CONTENTS
Ryszard Cholewa, Jerzy Gedymin, Stanisław Socha
Correlation of the traits of fur from different parts of the body in arctic foxes
(Alopex lagopus L.)..................................................................................................... 5
Współzależność cech okrywy włosowej z różnych partii ciała u lisów polarnych
(Alopex lagopus L.)
Dorota Kołodziejczyk, Aldona Gontarz, Stanisław Socha
Analysis of conformation traits of New Zealand White rabbits
on a breeding farm.................................................................................................... 17
Analiza cech pokroju królików rasy nowozelandzki biały w fermie hodowlanej
Mirosława Kulawik, Szymon Godynicki
Study by scanning electron microscopy of the morphogenesis of filiform and
fungiform papillae in the rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus f. domestica...................... 29
Badanie przy pomocy mikroskopu elektronowego skaningowego morfogenezy
brodawek nitkowatych i grzybowatych u królika, Oryctolagus cuniculus f.
domestica
Maria Osek, Renata Świnarska, Anna Milczarek, Barbara Klocek,
Alina Janocha
Rearing results and dietetic value of broiler chickens meat in dependence from
grains composition in mixtures oiled with soybean and linseed oils........................ 45
Wskaźniki odchowu i wartość dietetyczna mięsa kurcząt brojlerów
w zależności od kompozycji zbóż w mieszankach natłuszczonych olejem
sojowym i lnianym
Dariusz Piwczyński, Beata Sitkowska, Joanna Aerts, Magdalena Kolenda
The daily distribution of milkings of cows in farms equipped with the automatic
milking system.......................................................................................................... 61
Dobowy rozkład dojów krów w gospodarstwie wyposażonym w automatyczny
systemem doju
Daniel Polasik, Agnieszka Głodek, Artur Rybarczyk
An analysis of PPARGC1A gene polymorphism in relation to carcass quality
in PIC hybrid fatteners.............................................................................................. 71
Analiza polimorfizmu genu PPARGC1A w odniesieniu do cech tuszy tuczników
hybrydowych PIC
Agnieszka Prokulewicz, Agnieszka Tomza-Marciniak
Evaluation of selected physical parameters of air in autumn in stables
of Nowielice Stud Farm............................................................................................ 79
Ocena wybranych parametrów fizycznych powietrza w okresie jesiennym
w stajniach Stadniny Koni Nowielice

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