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NR 58
ANT ROP OM OT OR YK A
2012
THE DIFFERENCES IN THE LEVEL OF BIOLOGICAL
HEALTH INDICATORS FOR 7-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN
LIVING IN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF POLAND
RÓŻNICE W POZIOMIE BIOLOGICZNYCH WSKAŹNIKÓW
ZDROWOTNYCH U SIEDMIOLETNICH DZIECI
MIESZKAJĄCYCH W RÓŻNYCH REGIONACH POLSKI
Elżbieta Cieśla*, Zdzisław Domagała*, Małgorzata Markowska*,
Edward Mleczko**, Grażyna Nowak-Starz*, Agnieszka Przychodni***
****PhD, Faculty of Health Sciences, The Jan Kochanowski University of Humanities and Sciences in Kielce, Poland
****Prof. Dr. Habil., Department of Theory and Methodology of Athletics, University School of Physical Education in
Cracow, Poland
****PhD, Faculty of Pedagogy and Art, The Jan Kochanowski University of Humanities and Sciences in Kielce, Poland
Key words: environmental and socio-economic factors, seven-year-old children, positive health
indicators, Eurofit tests
Słowa kluczowe: czynniki środowiskowe i socjoekonomiczne, siedmioletnie dzieci, pozytywne
wskaźniki zdrowia, testy Eurofit
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SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Aim of the study. High level of physical fitness in children is determined by keeping desirable body
weight which correlates with many positive health aspects. The purpose of the research was to identify
the differences in the development of body functions considered as positive health indicators in children
finishing pre-school education (a preparatory year called “the zero class” attached either to kindergartens or
primary schools) and living in the area commonly known as “the eastern wall”, which includes Podkarpackie,
Lubelskie and Podlaskie Provinces, in comparison with their peers living in Mazowieckie (Mazovia) Province.
It was assumed that physical fitness of seven-year-old children may be determined by socio-economic
situation in their place of living. This phenomenon tends to be particularly noticeable in the regions where
economic growth has been relatively low compared to the region with the highest level of development.
The consequences of the differences in the level of functional development of seven-year-old children are
also likely to occur in the future. They may involve the differences not only in the level of development, but
also in adult quality and style of life, as well as negative health aspects such as incidence and mortality rate
due to lifestyle diseases.
Material and methods. The results of the research, which involved 8415 children including 4302 girls and
4113 boys examined in April-May of 2006 and living in the above-mentioned areas, were analysed. Selected
elements of Eurofit tests were applied to measure different aspects of fitness and motor control abilities. Questionnaire survey was conducted in order to collect information on the place of living, development and health
conditions of seven-year-old children. The research findings were statistically verified by means of one-way
analysis of variance extended by Least Significant Difference (LSD) test.
Results and cocnlusions. The research results revealed significant differences in the level of some components that define physical fitness between children living in eastern provinces of Poland and their peers from
central part of the country.
– 33 –
E. Cieśla, Z. Domagała, M. Markowska, E. Mleczko, G. Nowak-Starz, A. Przychodni
Cel pracy. Określenie zróżnicowania poziomu rozwoju funkcjonalnego dzieci kończących roczne przygotowanie w szkolnych i przedszkolnych oddziałach „zerowych” do edukacji szkolnej, z regionu tzw. ściany wschodniej,
do której zaliczono: województwo podkarpackie, lubelskie oraz podlaskie, w porównaniu do ich rówieśników
z województwa mazowieckiego. Założono, pomimo sygnalizowania zjawiska zanikania gradientów społecznych
w rozwoju biologicznym dzieci i młodzieży, że w regionach o niskim tempie rozwoju gospodarczego w porównaniu
z Polską centralną (dane z 2004–2005 r., opublikowane przez GUS w 2007 r.) zauważa się dysproporcje rozwojowe
nie tylko w odniesieniu do podstawowych cech somatycznych, lecz także motorycznych – ważnych z punktu
widzenia prawidłowego funkcjonowania dzieci w środowisku rówieśniczym.
Materiał i metody. Analizie poddano wyniki badań 8415 dzieci mieszkających w wyżej wymienionych regionach, w tym 4302 dziewcząt i 4113 chłopców, badanych w miesiącach kwiecień–maj 2006 roku. W zakresie
sprawności zbadano różne aspekty zdolności kondycyjnych i koordynacyjnych, posługując się wybranymi próbami
z testu Eurofit. Przeprowadzone obszerne badania ankietowe posłużyły do zebrania informacji na temat środowiska
zamieszkania, wykształcenia rodziców, warunków mieszkaniowych oraz rodziny i zdrowia sześciolatków. Badania
przeprowadzono w ramach projektu badawczego „Dziecko sześcioletnie u progu nauki szkolnej”, współfinansowanego ze środków Unii Europejskiej oraz Budżetu Państwa w ramach Europejskiego Funduszu Społecznego. Dane
poddano weryfikacji statystycznej. W celu weryfikacji przyjętej hipotezy zastosowano test F-Snedecora.
Wyniki i wnioski. Wyniki badań wskazują na istotne różnice w poziomie rozwoju wysokości i masy ciała oraz
niektórych aspektów siły i koordynacji u dzieci zamieszkujących województwa wschodnie w porównaniu z ich
rówieśnikami z Polski centralnej.
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Introduction
According to the contemporary definition of health,
physical fitness – an inseparable element of health – is
considered as the ability to function efficiently and effectively in everyday activities which determines a state
of well-being. The level of fitness, defined by how well
the body performs in each of the physical fitness components, depends, among others, on genetic and morphological factors [1, 2, 3, 4]. Regular physical activity
is also important to keep fit. The benefits of physical fitness increase with more frequent and regular physical
activities [5]. Both, the level of fitness and motor activity
determine health status of a population regardless of
age [6]. These two elements are closely correlated with
incidence and mortality rate due to cardiovascular diseases, metabolic disorders, cerebrovascular accidents
(CVA) and some types of cancer [7]. It is believed that
physical fitness, which determines increased physical
activity and quality of life, tends to be better determinant of health-related habits than physical activity [6,
8]. Health condition and health-related fitness (H-RF) in
childhood appear to be strong predictors of fitness and
physical activity in adult life [9].
The research revealed significant correlations between the measures of strength, flexibility and endurance
taken for the same individuals in their young and adult
life. They are considerably stronger than relationships related to physical activity measured for the same individuals in different periods of their lives. It might be assumed
that high level of fitness in childhood increases the level
of motor activity in adult life. Some research proves that
extensive physical activity at the age of 23–25 is strongly
correlated with good results of cardiac stress tests (or
cardiac diagnostic test) completed in childhood. The research conducted by Dennison et al. [1988] revealed that
proportion of physically active men aged 24 was strongly
associated with their good results of middle distance run
performed at the age of 10–11 and 17–18. What is more,
the number of physically inactive male adults was higher
among those with poor results of middle distance run
as teenagers [10]. Similar assumptions were made by
Kemper [11] in relation to females.
Health-related fitness in groups of children and
young people is determined by many environmental
factors, particularly place of living. It is also influenced
by socio-economic factors including family budget and
parents’ level of education. However, none of the indicators related to family social status directly affects
development of physical activity behaviours. Indirectly,
the above-mentioned social situations are often associated with the differences in important aspects of living
environment that influence morpho-functional deve
lopment [12]. They include, among others, the level of
hygiene, nutrition, ways of spending free time and the
choice of physical activities performed by parents and
children together. Positive health-related behaviour is
one of the most important elements in child’s living environment e.g. family [13, 14, 15, 16]. All these factors
considered for a certain area will contribute to the situation of humans occupying a particular ecological niche
[17, 18]. Therefore, any modifications of the ecological
niche may result in the change of this situation particularly in relation to males who are commonly considered
– 34 –
The differences in the level of biological health indicators for 7-year-old children living in different regions of Poland
more eco-sensitive than females. The area of living,
e.g. province (Polish: województwo), may be regarded
as a niche where individuals live and work in specific
socio-economic and cultural conditions.
Such factors as lower level of development, higher
rate of unemployment, lower level of education and
household income can have an impact on the situation of families, particularly those raising children. This
is proved by numerous research studies in the field of
auxology. Rural environment and low level of education
have negative influence on the level of physical fitness
and body mass index (BMI) [19]. These environments
do not create favourable conditions for development
of proper health behaviour, nutrition and high level of
physical fitness [16, 20, 21]. The families with higher
standard of living and high socio-economic status provide children with sport-related after-school activities
that strongly determine their level of fitness and healthy
habits [22–24]. Furthermore, they often choose schools
which offer appropriate conditions for development of
all the aspects of physical fitness [25, 26].
The observations discussed above refer to different
parts of Poland, especially eastern regions, in relation
to all-Poland developmental norms and other provinces with high level of development [25, 27, 28]. Due
to diversification in economic and financial potential of
different regions in Poland, it is important to monitor
morpho-functional development, one of the most essential health indicators, especially in pre-school and
early school period. Proper diagnosis should help to
compensate disproportions resulting from cultural, social and economic diversity of the Polish society determined by place of living.
The purpose of the research
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The purpose of this research study is to answer the
question: Do the noticeable economic differences
between “the eastern wall” regions and Mazowieckie
Province have a significant impact on changes in the
level of physical fitness in seven-year-old children?
Research material and methodology
The research is an integral part of the national research
project “Six-year-old child on the threshold of school
education” co-financed by the European Union and
the National Budget within the European Social Fund
which was conducted in 2006. In the representative
sample the following aspects were taken into consideration: division in the region represented by a province,
type of educational institution (pre-school or school)
attended by six-year-old children, as well as place of
living: rural or urban area. The method of stratified
and group sampling was applied, based on database
available through online education information system
(Polish: System Informacji Oświatowej) and updated by
the Central Statistical Office (Polish: GUS) in Poland
[29]. Ten per cent of educational institutions of each
type (school or pre-school) determined by the location
were selected from each layer. The children finishing
pre-school education were examined in April-May,
2006. In total, 4113 boys and 4302 girls with all the
physical and motor abilities tested, as well as sociodemographic data provided, were qualified for analysis (Table 1). The average age in the group was 7.1
(sd = 0.33).
In order to verify the hypothesis, the groups of children finishing pre-school education (a preparatory year
called “the zero class” attached either to kindergartens
or primary schools) from east and south-east regions
characterized by the lowest level of gross national
product (GNP) per capita in 2004 were distinguished
from their peers living in Mazowieckie Province where
the average rate of GNP is the highest in Poland [29].
Having taken the limitations resulting from the analysis of gross domestic product (GDP) into account,
the measure of family wealth was verified through the
level of gross earnings for the above-mentioned regions in 2003–2004. The lowest (in Podkarpackie and
Podlaskie Provinces) and low (in Lubelskie Province)
earnings compared with national average salary, which
also referred to Mazowieckie Province with the high-
Table 1. Number of children by region
Gender
Podkarpacie Province
n
Lublin Province
Podlasie Province
%
n
%
n
%
Mazovia Province
n
%
Girls
1026
23.8
922
21.4
540
12.6
1814
42.2
Boys
973
23.7
939
22.8
478
11.6
1723
41.9
– 35 –
– 36 –
4.40
4.45
4.96
4.80
Lublin Province
Podkarpacie Province
Podlasie Province
Number of family members (p ≤ 0.05)
Mazovia Province
Province
of Poland
High level education
Average declared nett income of parents (PLN) (p ≤ 0.01)
9.4
1772.46 12.1
1527.83
2142.64 13.1
2366.92 16.2
Not completed high level education
3.1
1.2
2.3
3.1
Training college
3.2
3.9
4.8
4.1
Vocational secondary school
16.7
19.7
24.9
19.9
Secondary school
5.1
3.6
3.5
3.6
Not completed secondary school
3.5
3.1
2.7
3.7
Vocational education
42.5
50.8
40.8
40.2
Elementary education
13.9
8.2
8.1
9.2
High level education
20.3
14.8
20.5
22.0
2.1
1.7
2.6
3.8
9.7
9.2
10.7
9.2
Training college
17.0
22.6
21.0
18.9
8.3
7.2
7.3
7.2
3.5
2.7
3.6
4.1
Vocational education
28.4
35.6
27.4
26.5
Mother’s education (p ≤ 0.001)
Vocational secondary school
Farther’s education (p ≤ 0.001)
Not completed high level education
Socio-economic indicators of families
Secondary school
Table 2. Socio-economic indicators of families raising seven-year-old children involved in the research project
Not completed secondary school
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Elementary education
10.6
6.1
7.0
8.3
Domestic
budget
in last month
(%) (p ≤ 0.001)
17.4
11.2
15.0
20.4
Very hight
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3.2
4.6
4.0
4.0
Not sufficient
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Declrared
unemployment
7.0
8.6
6.3
4.9
Fathers (%) p ≤ 0.001
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11.5
21.7
15.2
13.4
Mothers (%) p ≤ 0.001
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est gross earnings, were proved by various statistical
sources [29]. According to the authors, considering
these indicators in relation to 2003–2004 should guarantee an objective approach to analysis of the research
material. They reflect real socio-economic conditions
that affected families raising children at that time.
In addition, the analysis of statistical sources reveals
considerable importance of agriculture and rural areas in
demographic, social and economic structure of eastern
regions compared to central part of Poland [29]. The proportion of population living in rural areas fluctuated from
40.8% in Podlaskie to 59.6% in Podkarpackie, whereas in
Mazowieckie amounted to 35.5% only. It should be also
emphasized that the percentage of people employed in
agriculture varied significantly from 15% in Mazowieckie
to 38.1% in Lubelskie [30]. The statistical data provided
by the Central Statistical Office in Poland was extended
by socio-economic factors that affected families raising
children, who participated in the project (Table 2). The
following components were taken into consideration: the
number of children in a family, reported income of family
members, mother’s and father’s (separately) level of education (including statistically important categories: primary, vocational and higher education in relation to the type
of work and the level of earnings), the number of unemployed family members (excluding mothers on maternity
leave, extended maternity leave or health leave) as well as
subjective assessment of family income (the results were
presented in the following categories: very high, sufficient,
insufficient and below family expectations). It should be
stressed that the number of responses to the questions
discussed above fluctuated e.g. there were only 2–3 responses to the question of family income (Table 2).
The concept of health-related fitness was taken into
consideration when choosing trials and tests to measure physical fitness of six-year-old children with particular focus on those components which allow children to
function properly in different conditions. Additionally,
sport facilities in schools and kindergartens in Poland
were considered. The research project involved the assessment of total body balance, speed of limb movement, flexibility, running speed, abdominal muscular
endurance, explosive strength of lower and upper limbs,
as well as shoulder strength based on Eurofit tests. To
measure explosive strength of upper limbs, an alternative (simplified) version of the test: straight arm hang
was applied since pilot tests revealed that more than
half of children were not able to perform flexed arm
hang. To support the principle of reliability and validity
of fitness tests, each item of testing was placed in the
most effective order, according to Eurofit programme.
The children were also measured anthropometrically
for height and weight with the use of anthropometer
and scales (Table 3).
Basic statistical characteristics (arithmetic mean
and standard deviation) were calculated for such groups
as age, sex and place of residence. At first, one-way
analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine
variations in the means of somatic traits and motor abilities depending on the place of residence. To identify
differences between the groups, one-way analysis of
variance was extended by Least Significant Difference
(LSD) test. This allowed identifying differences in the
average results for each test not only between eastern
regions of Poland and Mazowieckie Province, but also
in all possible configurations. In addition, Pearson’s
Table 3. Basic somatic traits of seven-year-old children
Basic somatic traits in the east and central
Provinces of Poland
Girls
Boys
x
sd
N
x
sd
Body height [cm] – Mazovia Province
1722
123.38
5.58
1814
123.35
5.88
– Podlasie Province
478
122.02
5.72
540
123.20
5.74
– Lublin Province
939
121.41
5.56
922
122.79
5.61
– Podkarpacie Province
973
121.47
5.77
1026
123.22
5.63
– Mazovia Province
1722
24.74
4.94
1814
24.61
4.91
478
24.16
5.04
540
24.83
4.73
– Lublin Province
939
23.42
4.52
922
24.65
5.28
973
23.81
4.55
1026
24.99
5.15
-
N
-
-
-
-
Body mass [kg]
– 37 –
chi-squared test was used to assess relationships between socio-economic data concerning families of the
children involved in the project and their place of residence. To establish statistical significance, the following
levels or critical p-values were chosen: p ≤ 0.05, p ≤ 0.01
and p ≤ 0.001. The calculations were based on Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences SPSS 12.0 where database was added to Excel spreadsheet. SPSS software
was purchased within the research project.
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The results of the research project
Based on detailed analysis of socio-economic data,
a similar, average family size was reported among those
raising seven-year-old children involved in the project.
The lowest average was obtained for Mazowieckie
Province. In other provinces the number of family members tends to increase, even up to 5 in Podkarpackie
Province. Net household income of the respondents
differed between the provinces. Relatively low level of
net household income was reported in Podkarpackie
Province; in Mazowieckie, whereas, the level of household income was the highest. In other regions household income was reported between the lowest and the
highest level. Only 3 out of 9 levels of education with the
biggest number of responses were considered: primary, vocational and higher education. It may be assumed
that the level of education will determine resourcefulness at work, type of work and the level of salary. The
highest rate of mothers and fathers with primary education was reported in Podlaskie, whereas the lowest in
Lubelskie and Podkarpackie Provinces where majority
of the respondents acquired vocational education; higher level of education was the least frequent there. The
research revealed higher rate of unemployed mothers
than fathers which often referred to Podkarpackie region.
Children living in eastern Poland were characterised by lower body height compared with those
from Mazowieckie Province. The lowest body heights
were typically found for boys and girls from Lubelskie
Province. Developmental differences were more clearly
visible in the groups of girls than boys. Critical p-value:
p ≤ 0.001 was determined in the group of boys only for
Mazowieckie–Lubelskie configuration, as well as for all
the configurations including Mazowieckie in the group
of girls (Table 1). As far as body mass is concerned,
similarly to body height, considerably low average measures for girls from Lubelskie Province were noticed
where average values were lower by 1 kg compared
with their peers from Mazowieckie. It should be emphasized that there was a tendency to obtain increasingly higher average values in the regions where GNP
rates appeared to be higher than in Lubelskie Province.
Such correlation was also visible in the group of boys
in which average values were similar to those found for
seven-year-olds from Mazowieckie, and a bit higher for
boys living in Podkarpackie (Table 1).
One-way analysis of variance, calculated separately in groups of boys and girls for their motor abilities
and area of living determined by provinces, showed
significant correlations for all the configurations of variables. LSD test calculated for significant value F revealed the differences between east and south-east of
Poland compared with Mazowieckie Province. It must
be emphasized that there was no tendency proving
considerably lower level of physical fitness (in all the
components) in children from “the eastern wall” provinces compared with their counterparts living in central
Poland. The difference is typically determined by a particular motor ability. This proves developing various profiles of physical fitness even in 4–6-year-old children in
relation to their place of living.
The differences in the measures of balance determined by region showed that both boys and girls from
Lubelskie in comparison with other children obtained
the highest average values (Figure 1). On average, they
needed approximately 6 trials to keep balance within
a minute. Children from Podlaskie achieved similar average values, whereas their peers from other related
provinces needed approximately 3 trails more to keep
balance. In the group of girls, the differences only in
configuration Mazowieckie–Podkarpackie did not reveal considerable correlation. Unlike the measures of
balance, the differences in average results calculated
for speed of arm movement in relation to the place of
living were found (Figure 2).
Figure 1. Flamingo balance in comparing groups
– 38 –
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Figure 2. Plate tapping in comparing groups
–0.5
In both groups, boys and girls, the results appeared
to have been determined by welfare of the province.
The wealthier region, the higher development seemed
to be (children needed less time to perform a test).
Children living in Mazowieckie obtained the highest average results (p ≤ 0.001) (Tables 4 and 5). Similarly to
–1
Figure. 3. Sit and reach in comparing groups
the speed of arm movement, the level of flexibility was
significantly influenced by place of living (Figure 3). The
assumption that children from Mazowieckie Province
Table 4. Motor abilities of seven-year-old children
Motor abilities in the east
and central provinces of Poland
Flamingo balance
-
sd
N
x
sd
1717
10.40
8.94
1811
11.15
9.27
478
7.51
8.29
540
7.47
8.45
– Lublin Province
938
6.73
8.37
922
6.01
8.40
932
9.90
10.04
975
10.39
10.09
1720
23.57
6.42
1811
23.73
6.55
477
20.74
5.36
539
24.46
4.79
– Lublin Province
932
25.72
4.83
915
25.39
5.18
938
25.26
4.78
1023
25.06
5.06
1722
1.49
5.59
1814
1.31
5.38
478
1.05
4.80
540
–0.80
5.13
– Lublin Province
939
1.32
5.14
922
–0.08
5.49
478
2.44
5.48
1026
0.69
5.18
Standing broad jump – Mazovia Province
1722
96.38
19.56
1814
96.45
19.26
476
95.40
15.60
539
100.18
15.72
– Lublin Province
939
93.37
19.97
922
7.44
5.78
971
94.02
19.84
1022
103.08
21.14
1717
9.15
5.01
1813
9.02
4.89
474
9.84
5.31
537
9.61
5.25
– Lublin Province
939
7.23
5.58
922
7.44
5.78
971
9.46
5.08
1026
9.89
5.24
1721
27.36
20.66
1809
27.83
22.13
477
28.05
19.17
540
31.96
21.62
– Lublin Province
939
23.21
15.87
917
26.33
18.99
970
30.42
24.48
1025
34.74
27.55
5 × 10 m shuttle run – Mazovia Province
1718
26.91
3.64
1811
26.96
3.77
477
27.54
3.47
539
27.04
3.59
– Lublin Province
939
29.04
3.86
918
28.65
4.18
972
27.83
3.59
1024
26.95
3.51
Sit-ups
-
x
Sit and reach
-
N
Boys
Plate tapping
-
Girls
Bent arm hanging
– 39 –
Table 5. Snedecor’s F distribution in the group of boys for motor abilities and area of living represented by province
Motor abilities
The number of degrees of freedom
F
p
4244
75.329
0.000
3
4284
21.558
0.000
Sit and reach [cm]
3
4298
28.738
0.000
Standing broad jump[cm]
3
4292
25.812
0.000
Sit-ups [n/30 sec]
3
4294
39.854
0.000
Bent arm hanging [sec]
3
4287
28.942
0.000
5 × 10 m shuttle run [sec]
3
4288
48.390
0.000
f1
f2
Flamingo balance [n/1 min]
3
Plate tapping [sec]
average results. The differences between children living in eastern regions of Poland and their counterparts
from Mazowieckie were statistically significant for both
sexes: p ≤ 0.000 (boys) and p ≤ 0.01 (girls) only for
Mazowieckie–Lubelskie configuration. In other tests
of strength, boys and girls living in Podkarpackie (with
low level of GDP per capita and low salary level) obtained slightly better results than their peers from other
regions. In this case location seemed to be important.
Significant differences were proved (p ≤ 0.001) for
abdominal muscles power measured in the groups of
boys in the configurations: Mazowieckie–Podkarpackie
and Mazowieckie–Podlaskie. Considerable differences
in the level of abdominal strength, proved by test of significance, were found in the group of girls for configurations Mazowieckie–Podlaskie (p ≤ 0.01), as well as upper limbs and shoulders strength among seven-year-old
girls from Mazowieckie and Podkarpackie (p ≤ 0.001)
(Tables 4–5). In running speed trial, seven-year-old
girls from Mazowieckie and boys from Podkarpackie
could be characterised by higher level of development
was proved only in the group of boys (critical p-value:
p ≤ 0.001). Taking opposite sex into consideration, the
best average results were obtained by seven-year-old
girls from Podkarpackie Province. The lowest average results were found for both boys and girls living in
Podlaskie. Statistically significant differences were confirmed for girls from Podkarpackie and Mazowieckie
Provinces (p ≤ 0.001). Place of living did not appear
to be discriminant factor for Mazowieckie–Podlaskie
and Mazowieckie–Lubelskie configurations. The measures of strength were taken by three different trials:
standing broad jump, sit-ups performed in specific time
and straight arm hang. It should be stressed that in the
group of seven-year-old girls only explosive strength of
lower limbs, measured through both-leg standing broad
jump, was determined by place of living. Higher average
results were achieved in relation to a social gradient
(Figures 4–6). The best average results were found for
seven-year-old boys from Podkarpackie, whereas their
peers from Mazowieckie Province obtained the lowest
-
-
-
-
-
Figure 4. Standing broad jump in comparing groups
Figure 5. Sit-ups in comparing groups
– 40 –
Table 6. Snedecor’s F distribution in the group of girls for motor abilities and area of living represented by province
Motor abilities
The number of degrees of freedom
F
p
4061
41.062
0.000
3
4102
36.494
0.000
Sit and reach [cm]
3
4108
10.874
0.000
Standing broad jump [cm]
3
4104
6.057
0.000
Sit-ups [n/30 sec]
3
4098
42.370
0.000
Bent arm hanging [sec]
3
4103
20.145
0.000
5 × 10 m shuttle run [sec]
3
4102
68.721
0.000
f1
f2
Flamingo balance [n/1 min]
3
Plate tapping [sec]
ern provinces compared with Mazowieckie. Girls from
Mazowieckie achieved the best results in running speed
test (Tables 4–5).
-
-
-
-
-
Discussion
The research study discusses differences in the level of
physical fitness components determined by various regions of Poland in seven-year-old children. It has been
assumed that functional features are sensitive to any
changes in external environment. Additionally, living
conditions including socio-economic factors, created
Figure 6. Bent arm hang in comparing groups
by family environment significantly influence health and
proper development of children [12, 25, 31, 32]. It should
be emphasized that this research does not have many
points of reference, what makes it difficult to analyse
the results. Therefore, publications that refer to conditions determined by place of living (urban or rural area)
have been used to compare the research findings. It
has been concluded that rural areas compared with
urban regions are characterised by lower standard of
living, low rate of people with higher education and high
rate of those with vocational and secondary education
[29, 33].
Figure 7. 5 x 10 m shuttle run in comparing groups
Eastern provinces of Poland are characterised by
decreasing economic potential, stable population and
obtained the best average results, whereas children significantly bigger area compared with other provfrom Lubelskie Province appeared to achieve the low- inces. Along with Warmińsko-Mazurskie Province,
est results (Figure 7). Boys from central Poland ob- they belong to so-called group IV with the lowest rate
tained similar results to their peers from Podlaskie and of GDP per capita [29, 30, 33] and considerably difPodkarpackie Provinces. Significant differences were fer from central provinces in economic and industrial
found only between average results of seven-year-old development. Significantly higher rate of unemploychildren from Mazowieckie in relation to Podkarpackie ment and bigger number of people receiving welProvinces. In the groups of girls, the average results fare assistance have been reported there [29, 33]. It
were significantly different (p ≤ 0.001) in all the east- should be emphasized that the number of towns and
– 41 –
-
-
-
-
-
cities in Mazowieckie is higher than in each of other
related provinces [29]. Therefore in eastern provinces
of Poland, particularly in Podkarpackie, lower rate of
equivalent family income compared with Mazowieckie
have been reported [33]. The above-mentioned data is
reflected by socio-economic indicators related to families of seven-year-old children (Table 2). This denotes
better intellectual and financial potential in Mazowieckie
Province than in eastern regions of Poland, especially
Podkarpackie. It may be claimed that intellectual potential of adult population from eastern provinces of Poland
is not only underused, but also underpaid. The above
mentioned facts support the hypothesis on significant
disproportions in living conditions, including access to
health care and education facilities, between eastern
and central Poland [29, 33].
It must be stressed that in “the eastern wall” provinces
agriculture and processing industry tend to be the main
sources of income. This situation results in little pollution
and degradation of the environment that significantly
affect conditions for child development. The areas with
little environmental pollution should contribute to proper
development of respiratory and cardiovascular systems.
This could be reflected by better results in tests or trials
related to strength and endurance achieved by children
living in environmentally clean areas compared with their
counterparts from areas exposed to harmful effects of
chemical substances which is proved by the research
involving children and young people from Krakowski
(Cracow) region [34, 35] and adults from Dolny Śląsk
[36]. In this case, Mazowiecki region, more industrialised
and urbanised, would create unfavourable environmental conditions for biological and functional development.
However, Welon and Rogucka’s research [37] prove
a complex mechanism of environmental pollution that
affect human development which is also influenced by
specific biological characteristics and modifying factors
including living conditions, healthy habits, as well as access to health care.
In the research involving seven-year-old children,
the differences in the level of morpho-functional development have been reported in relation to the place of
living. Additionally, significant disproportions in the level
of somatic traits and motor development compared with
population of central Poland have been observed. In most
cases they are statistically significant, particularly in the
group of girls, and with some exceptions, also in the group
of boys. The direction of differences indicates that children from Mazowieckie Province tend to achieve higher
level of development. This phenomenon has been re-
ported for height and speed of limb movement measured
through plate tapping test and shuttle run 10 × 5 m in boys
and girls. In addition, the same direction of diversification
has been found for body mass and explosive strength of
lower limbs in the group of girls, as well as flexibility in
the group of seven-year-old boys. The best results were
achieved in muscular endurance measured through situps in 30 seconds test, straight arm hang and standing
broad jump, as well as in body balance in the group of
boys from Podkarpackie and Podlaskie Provinces.
Similar differences in the level of physical development
of children and young people aged 7–19 were reported by
Przewęda and Dobosz [25]. The differences in the level of
somatic traits development, favourable for children living
in Mazowieckie, are probably caused by socio-economic
disproportions between Warszawa (Warsaw), the largest Polish urbanised area, and other regions of Poland.
A similar situation was reported in the 1970s in relation
to older children [38]. It should be remembered that the
problem of lower level of somatic traits development in
children and young people from eastern regions of Poland
compared with their peers from central Poland has been
already discussed by other authors [39–41].
As mentioned above, the level of some H-RF components (boys’ and girls’ speed of movement and girls’
explosive strength) tends to prove the assumption that
socio-economic factors may affect the level of motor abilities. It is confirmed by the best average results
achieved in Mazowieckie Province where the values of
socio-economic factors that affect families are the highest in Poland. Furthermore, following Przewęda assumption that certain ecological niches create specific system
of independent variables which indirectly affect child
development, it might be claimed that areas of low living standards do not create favourable conditions for development of speed abilities or explosive strength. This
was proved by Zaradkiewicz’s [42] research according
to which children from regions of poor bio-geographical
and socio-economic conditions typically obtained the
lowest results in speed trials. Freitas et al. [43] confirmed
that speed and other components of physical fitness are
strongly related to socio-economic status, particularly in
girls; the higher rate of socio-economic status they had,
the higher level of speed and strength they achieved.
Contrary to the above-mentioned researchers, Peña et
al. [44] revealed higher level of speed abilities among
children living in rural areas. Przewęda and Dobosz [25],
commenting on the speed of movement, also stressed
that the results of boys and girls were better in the regions with relatively poor socio-economic conditions,
– 42 –
-
-
-
-
-
i.e. in Podlaskie and Lubelskie Provinces. However, this
conclusion was drawn in relation to standardized results
of children and young people aged 7–19.
The majority of the research conducted in Poland
proved high level of strength in rural children and young
people. According to Momola [45], pre-school children
from rural areas of Podkarpacki region achieved high
level of arm and shoulder strength. Similar results
were found by Przewęda and Dobosz [25] as well as
Wilczewski [41] for older children. Taking economic
conditions in different regions of Poland and socioeconomic determinants of biological development into
account, it should be emphasized that the phenomenon
discussed above was proved by the research involving
seven-year-old children. It might be also claimed that
the research involving seven-year-old children proved
positive impact of environmentally clean regions and
rural areas on the level of endurance in eastern regions
of Poland reported by Trzcińska [46]. An opposite tendency was reported for the group of Mexican children,
where favourable conditions for strength development
were created by urban environment, even when excluding age and somatic traits parameters [44].
It should be emphasized that the results of flexibility
test, as the fundamental component of H-RF, depend
on body height and length proportions [47]. The value
of flexibility is also determined by the level of strength
achieved in various trials. The tests revealed lower level
of flexibility in persons with higher level of strength [48].
However, seven-year-old children from Podkarpackie
and Mazowieckie Provinces obtained also high average results in abdominal muscular endurance measured
through sit-ups in 30 seconds test. Some of the research
results proved correlation between the level of flexibility and the place of residence. In the research involving Turkish and Polish children, higher level of flexibility
was reported for children living in rural areas [49, 50].
According to Przewęda, however, flexibility measured
for girls is not determined by environmental factors [17].
In the research that involved children and young people
aged 7–19 Przewęda and Dobosz reported different results. The representatives of Lubelskie Province achieved
the highest level of human development, whereas their
counterparts from Mazowieckie and Podkarpackie – the
lowest. In the group of girls aged 7–19, the students from
Podkarpackie obtained high results, whereas those from
Podlaskie performed at low level [25]. This observation
has been proved by the authors’ research.
The majority of the research results prove that higher level of body balance is significantly influenced by
better living conditions created in urban environment.
In the research involving seven-year-old children an
inverse correlation was found. Areas with low socioeconomic parameters and low level of industrialisation create favourable conditions for better development of body balance (e.g. Lublin district). According
to Wilczewski et al. [51], this is urban environment
that creates favourable conditions for better results to
achieve. The level of parents’ education and the number of children in the family also affect body balance
[52]. It must be emphasized that, similarly to physical
fitness components in relation to health, body balance
tends to be correlated with body height and weight [4].
Based on considerations discussed above, it might be
assumed that lower parameters of body height in boys
and girls, as well as low parameters of body mass in
girls and high in boys from eastern regions of Poland
in comparison with children from Mazowieckie enable
them to achieve higher level of body balance.
The research findings revealed the differences in
the level of physical fitness at the stage of progressive
development, particularly the seventh year of life when
children finish pre-school education and begin a new
phase in their lives. The diversification proved by the
research, assuming ethnic homogeneity of the Polish
society, probably results from significant differences in
economic status, number of children and family members, level of parents’ education and unequal access to
education or leisure activities, particularly in rural areas
and small towns. Patterns of health behaviour adopted
from older family members, including parents and siblings, have also considerable influence on physical fitness. Perhaps, relationships with grandparents are also
important. Because of long distance to educational facilities and poor financial conditions of families, especially
those from eastern regions of Poland, grandparents are
primarily involved in upbringing; they shape and develop
eating habits and care for everyday physical activity appropriate to children’s abilities. Constant observation of
the elders as well as imitating their behaviour especially
in the first years of life significantly contribute to appropriate and optimal use of physical potential and prevent children from excessive body weight and obesity. Therefore,
it is important that older family members initiate different
forms of physical activity, especially those involving accuracy, speed and various aspects of body coordination.
If a family lacks of physical activity, approves spending
long hours watching TV or playing computer games since
early childhood, physical potential of the child develops
inadequately to his/her needs and abilities.
– 43 –
Conclusion
It should be also stressed that in spite of better natural
conditions created by smaller environments, a specific
profile of fitness emerging in early school years on the
threshold of school education is still noticeable. It is
characterised by higher level of speed and body coordination abilities in children from well-off regions and
higher level of endurance in children from poor areas of
Poland which has been already reported. It is probable
that lack of possibilities to compensate socio-economic
disproportions in Polish regions along with bad habits
related to physical fitness will decrease chances to improve physical fitness of young generation.
Acknowledgements
The research results are integral part of the national
research project “Six-year-old child on the threshold of
school education” co-financed by European Union within European Social Fund as well as Ministry of National
Education in Poland (No. 5/2.1a/2004/2937).
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