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NR 57
ANT ROP OM OT OR YK A
2012
ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVALUATION
OF THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS
ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND PHYSICAL FITNESS
OF RURAL BOYS FROM LUBLIN REGION
ANTROPOLOGICZNA OCENA WPŁYWU CZYNNIKÓW
SOCJOEKONOMICZNYCH NA ROZWÓJ I SPRAWNOŚĆ
FIZYCZNĄ CHŁOPCÓW WIEJSKICH Z LUBELSZCZYZNY
Helena Popławska*, Krystyna Buchta*, Agnieszka Dmitruk*
* PhD, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport in Biała Podlaska; Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in
Warsaw, Poland
Key words: boys, socio-economic conditions, body height, body mass, BMI, motor
abilities, time changes
Słowa kluczowe: chłopcy, warunki socjoekonomiczne, wysokość ciała, masa ciała, BMI,
zdolności motoryczne, zmiany czasowe
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SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Aim of the study. The aim of the work was to evaluate changes of the influence of family socio-economic
factors on the level of the somatic development and motor fitness of rural boys from Lublin region in the years
1998–2007.
Material and methods. The research included 547 boys in 1998 and 484 boys in 2007 in selected categories
of boys aged 10–11, 14–15, and 17–18 years. Physical development of the subjects was evaluated on the basis
of body height and mass measurements, which were then used to calculate BMI. Motor fitness was defined with
the use of Eurofit tests. Taking into consideration the level of education of parents and the number of children
in families both in 1998 and in 2007, two groups were distinguished according to socio-economic stratification
(SES), i.e., with a high and low SES status. The values of somatic parameters and the results of motor abilities
tests were normalized for the arithmetic mean and standard deviation in particular age categories.
Results. In both 1998 and in 2007, higher normalized values of body height, mass, and BMI were noted in
subjects belonging to the group with a high SES status. Only in 17–18-year-olds from 2007 were higher values
of body height and mass observed in the group with a low SES status. As far as physical fitness was concerned
in the categories of those aged 10–11 years and 17–18 years, higher normalized values of the majority of the
analyzed motor tests occurred in boys from families with a low SES status, both in the research from 1998 and
from 2007. However, in the age group of 14–15-year-olds, in the majority of the analyzed motor tests higher
normalized values were observed in boys from the group with a high SES status.
Conclusions. No substantial changes in the influence of socio-economic variables on the somatic development and motor fitness of rural boys from Lublin region in the years 1998–2007 were observed.
Cel pracy. Celem pracy była ocena zmian w oddziaływaniu czynników socjoekonomicznych rodziny na poziom
rozwoju somatycznego i sprawności motorycznej chłopców wiejskich z Lubelszczyzny w latach 1998 – 2007.
Materiał i metody. Badaniami objęto 547 chłopców w 1998 roku i 484 w 2007 roku w wybranych kategoriach
wieku 10–11, 14–15 i 17–18 lat. Rozwój fizyczny badanych oceniono na podstawie pomiarów wysokości i masy
– 103 –
Helena Popławska, Krystyna Buchta, Agnieszka Dmitriuk
ciała, na podstawie których obliczono wskaźnik BMI. Sprawność motoryczną określono za pomocą prób wchodzących w skład testu Eurofit. Biorąc pod uwagę wykształcenie rodziców i dzietność rodzin, zarówno w 1998 jak
i w 2007 roku, wydzielono dwie grupy, tj. o wysokim i niskim SES. Wartości parametrów somatycznych i wyniki
prób motorycznych znormalizowano na średnią arytmetyczną i odchylenie standardowe w poszczególnych kategoriach wieku.
Wyniki. W 1998, jak i w 2007 roku wyższymi wartościami unormowanymi wysokości, masy ciała i BMI charakteryzowali się badani zaliczeni do grupy o wysokim SES. Jedynie u 17–18-latków z 2007 roku wyższe wartości
wysokości i masy ciała zaobserwowano w grupie o niskim SES. W przypadku sprawności fizycznej w kategoriach wieku 10–11 oraz 17–18 lat wyższe wartości unormowane większości analizowanych prób motorycznych
wystąpiły u chłopców z rodzin o niskim SES, zarówno w badaniach z 1998, jak i z 2007 roku. Natomiast w grupie
wieku 14–15 lat w większości analizowanych prób motorycznych wyższe wartości unormowane zaobserwowano
u chłopców z grupy o wysokim SES.
Wnioski. Nie zaobserwowano wyraźnych zmian w oddziaływaniu zmiennych socjoekonomicznych na rozwój
somatyczny i sprawność motoryczną chłopców wiejskich z Lubelszczyzny w latach 1998–2007.
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Introduction
Society’s changing living standards stimulate the need
for multivariate analysis of physical and motor develop
ment in children, adolescents, and adults. Typically, so
cioeconomic, ecological, and cultural factors are listed
amongst environmental determinants of development.
In the case of anthropological studies, the size and
character of social environment, parental education
level and profession, as well as the number of children
per family are usually taken into account [1, 2, 3]. All of
these factors can be identified objectively; furthermore,
the results of a study based on the aforementioned
criteria can be assessed in view of other findings. In
some cases, other elements of the living environment,
e.g., the size of the farm, family type, the form of child’s
vacation, as well as the sport activities of children and
their families, are also considered as determinants of
motor development in children and adolescents [4].
In most well-developed countries, no observed ef
fects of the environmental variables on the develop
ment and physical capacity of children and adolescents
have been noted in the past several years. Thus, the
so-called “biological classlessness” is postulated to oc
cur in such countries [5, 6]. In contrast, disparities in the
degree of somatic development and physical fitness of
children and adolescents originating from groups char
acterized by various socioeconomic statuses can still
be observed in Poland. Many authors have noted that
a superior economic status along with a higher level
of parental education and a lower number of children
per family are associated with higher average values
of somatic parameters in the representatives of a given
social class [7, 8, 9]. However, the results of recently
published studies examining large city environments
point to a lack of significant social variable-dependent
differences in the developmental parameters [10, 11,
12].
The research presented in this paper pertained
to children and adolescents from rural areas of the
Lubelszczyzna region. This region, at the end of the
20th century, was characterized by the low educational
levels of its inhabitants and a high number of children
per family. Furthermore, social inequities were ob
served in terms of somatic development and physical
fitness of children and adolescents from Lubelszczyzna
[13, 14].
The principal objective of this study was to answer
the following question: was there any variation on the
impact of the socioeconomic factors on the degree of
somatic development and motor capacity in children and
adolescents from the rural areas of the Lubelszczyzna
region in the 1998–2007 time period?
Material and methods
This cross-sectional study was performed in 1998 and
2007, and included 547 (1998) and 484 (2007) boys
from selected age categories, i.e., boys aged 10–11,
14–15, and 17–18 years, corresponding to various edu
cational levels (primary, grammar, and secondary). The
participants attended rural schools located in north
western Lubelskie province. In 1998, the investigated
schools were selected at random from a register listing
all rural schools, kindly provided by the Department of
Education in Biała Podlaska, and in proportion to the to
tal number of schools of a given type in the former Biała
Podlaska province. The schools in Janów Podlaski,
Klonownica, Konstantynów, Leśna Podlaska, and
Rokitno were selected. In 2007, the study was repeated
in the same schools. The survey intended to examine
all school children whose parents expressed their con
– 104 –
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Anthropological evaluation of the influence of socio-economic factors on the development and physical fitness...
sent, with the exception of individuals exempted from
physical education classes. At the beginning of the
study, the parents of participating children were asked
to complete a questionnaire. Aside from parental con
sent to include their child in the study, the questionnaire
asked for the date of birth of each child, the number of
siblings, and paternal and maternal educational level.
The study included anthropometric measurements
of basic somatic parameters taken using Martin’s tech
nique [15]. Body height was measured using an an
thropometer with a precision of 0.1 cm. Body weight
was determined with an electronic medical scale with
a precision of 100 g. Based on these values, the body
mass index (BMI) was calculated for every participant.
The somatic measurements were taken during morn
ing hours. The children were examined individually,
dressed in their gym suits and barefoot.
Selected motor abilities and flexibility were deter
mined using a set of trials included in the protocols of
the European Test of Physical Fitness [16]. Explosive
leg power was determined based on the length of stand
ing broad jump and the strength of the trunk based on
the number of sit-ups performed in 30 seconds. The
evaluation of agility was based on the time obtained
in 10 x 5m shuttle run, and the speed of upper limb
movement was based on the time obtained in the plate
tapping test. The sit and reach test was employed to
assess flexibility [17]. The motor capacity of examined
boys was measured at the sports facilities of participat
ing schools during physical education classes.
Three variables describing the family situation of
the examined children, i.e., the level of paternal and
maternal education and the number of children per
family, were selected to assess the socioeconomic
status of the participating families. These variables are
widely accepted as indicators of socioeconomic status
of the family, and thus allow for comparative analyses.
Furthermore, parents report their education data and
the number of children more eagerly than other char
acteristics, such as economic status of the family or
domestic relations.
The level of parental (paternal and maternal) edu
cation was classified into three categories: 1) primary
and vocational training, 2) secondary education, and
3) post-secondary education. Similarly, three catego
ries were recognized within the “number of children
per family” variable. The first category included fami
lies with one or two children, the second – with three
children, and the third – with more than three children.
For the purposes of this analysis, two groups located at
the opposing extremes of the socioeconomic spectrum,
high or low socioeconomic status (SES), were distin
guished. The first group (high SES) included children
and adolescents of parents with secondary or post-sec
ondary education and originating from the families with
one or two children. In contrast, the low SES group was
comprised of school children from multi-children fami
lies (at least three children per family), with the mother
and the father possessing educational levels lower than
secondary.
The data recorded in 2007 was compared to that
data obtained in the same region in 1998 in order to
analyze the effect of changes in the factors indirectly
evaluating the socioeconomic status of the families on
the degree of somatic development and motor abilities
of boys from rural areas. Both studies were performed
by the same research team, employed the same meth
ods of somatic development and motor ability assess
ment, as well as the same criteria for the parental edu
cation level and the number of children per family.
Statistical analysis was carried out using Statistica
6.0 package (StatSoft). Individual values of somatic
parameters and motor tests were normalized for the
individual age groups by arithmetic means and stan
dard deviations. Each parameter was presented in
T scale, where T = 10z + 50, where z is the normal
ized value of measurements; and in timescale, where
T = 10(–1) + 50. The normalization procedure enabled
the amalgamation of all the categories of boys aged
10–11, 14–15, and 17–18 years.
The variables possessing the most significant im
pact on the basic somatic characteristics, motor abili
ties, and flexibility of our participants were identified
using multiple regression analysis. Additionally, the
significance of the differences between the normalized
values of somatic parameters and motor tests deter
mined in 1998 and in 2007 in groups characterized by
high and low SES was analyzed using the Student’s
t-test. Statistical significance of all tests was set at
p < 0.05.
Results
The SES structure of examined children within the ana
lyzed age categories is presented in Table 1. Analysis
of the data presented in this table indicates a consider
able variability in the distribution of high and low SES in
1998 and in 2007. In 1998, all of the analyzed age cat
egories were characterized by a relatively small fraction
of individuals with high SES and a high percentage of
– 105 –
normalised values
56
*
54
*
*
52
50
48
46
44
body height
body mass
BMI
high SES 1998
54,2
54,0
52,8
low SES 1998
49,3
48,6
48,5
high SES 2007
51,2
52,7
52,7
low SES 2007
47,6
47,5
48,4
Figure 1. Normalized values of somatic features of boys aged 10–11 (T scale)
those with low SES. In contrast, the opposite was ob
served in the SES structure determined in 2007.
The results of regression analysis, expressed as
beta coefficients, and the percentage values of ad
justed coefficients of determination (R2) illustrating the
degree of the variability of each dependent variable as
a result of the effects of the socioeconomic characteris
tics included in this study, are presented in Tables 2 and
3. The values of standardized beta coefficients suggest
weak (insignificant) associations between the paternal
and maternal education levels and somatic parameters
in both time periods of the study. With regards to the
paternal education level, only the positive correlations
pertained to body height and weight in boys from the
youngest age category analyzed in 2007. Significant
effects of the “number of children per family” variable
on the somatic development was revealed in the cases
of the boys aged 10–11 and 14–15 years analyzed at
the end of the 1990s. However, a comparable relation
ship was not documented in 2007. The socioeconomic
variables examined in this study explained only a small
fraction of variance in the analyzed somatic parame
ters (approximately 5% in the case of body height and
nearly 8% for body weight). More frequently, the effects
60
55
*
body height
body mass
BMI
high SES 1998
48,3
53,7
56,1
low SES 1998
50,6
49,7
48,7
high SES 2007
50,6
51,2
51,0
low SES 2007
42,1
42,8
47,4
normalised values
*
50
45
40
35
-
30
-
-
*
-
-
– 106 –
normalised values
56
54
52
50
48
46
44
body height
body mass
BMI
high SES 1998
50,2
49,1
48,9
low SES 1998
49,3
48,2
48,5
high SES 2007
50,4
50,5
49,9
low SES 2007
54,8
53,4
48,8
of socioeconomic variables were observed to influence
the development of motor abilities. Based on the results
of regression analysis, trunk strength, explosive power
and agility proved most “sensitive” to the effects of so
cioeconomic situation. The following relationship was
documented in all age categories analyzed in 2007: the
smaller the number of children per family, the worse
the results of trunk strength development. Additionally,
paternal and maternal education had a considerable
impact on the development of trunk strength. In particu
lar, in the case of the category of the 10–11-year-olds,
higher levels of paternal education were associated
with poorer results of the trunk strength test, while a re
verse correlation was observed with regards to mater
nal education. In total, the analyzed variables explained
between approximately 5% and 20% of the variability
in the strength of the trunk. Socioeconomic status vari
ables explained variability in the explosive leg power to
a lesser extent (up to 4% at the most). Level of paternal
education had a significant impact on this parameter,
but the direction of this relationship was different de
pending on the parent’s gender. Similar phenomenon
was also observed in the case of agility of participants
aged 17–18 years examined in 1998, in which case
normalised values
60
50
45
40
35
30
flexibility
explosive
pow er
trunk strength
agility
speed of upp.
limb movement
high SES 1998
47,2
49,2
45,5
47,4
51,0
low SES 1998
50,8
50,5
51,3
51,6
49,6
high SES 2007
46,8
49,6
44,7
49,6
48,0
low SES 2007
47,8
47,6
52,9
52,7
54,1
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*
*
55
Figure 4. Normalized values of the analyzed motor abilities and flexibility of boys aged 10–11 (T scale)
– 107 –
65
*
normalised values
60
*
55
50
45
40
35
30
flexibility
explosive
pow er
trunk strength
agility
speed of upp.
limb movement
high SES 1998
54,8
50,7
48,3
54,8
53,4
low SES 1998
51,5
49,9
49,6
49,7
49,7
high SES 2007
49,7
48,8
46,3
49,2
49,5
low SES 2007
59,1
47,2
58,8
47,9
46,8
the socioeconomic variables explained approximately
9% of variability in the results of 10 x 5m shuttle run.
The number of children per family was the only vari
able which significantly affected the speed of upper
limb movement; this association proved significant in
the category of 14–15-year-olds examined in 2007. In
contrast, no significant effects of environmental vari
ables were observed in the case of the results of the
flexibility trials.
65
normalised values
50
*
*
45
40
35
30
flexibility
explosive
pow er
trunk strength
agility
speed of upp.
limb movement
high SES 1998
47,1
48,0
47,9
46,7
50,4
low SES 1998
51,7
50,5
49,0
50,9
49,1
high SES 2007
47,9
46,7
46,5
54,5
50,7
low SES 2007
54,5
59,5
60,6
52,2
52,0
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-
-
-
*
*
60
55
Normalized arithmetic means of somatic indices
and motor tests (in T scale) in boys from extreme
socioeconomic groups studied in 1998 and in 2007
are presented in Figures 1–6. When the variability of
somatic development was considered, higher normal
ized values of body height, body weight, and BMI were
documented in individuals with high SES belonging to
categories of boys aged 10–11 and 14–15 years. This
aforementioned relationship was observed both in 1998
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and in 2007, the only exception pertaining to the body
height of 14- to 15-year-old boys who were examined in
1998. In 1998, slightly higher values of somatic devel
opment parameters were documented in the group of
boys aged 17–18 years who were characterized by high
SES. On the other hand, the intergroup SES-related
differences in body height and weight were markedly
more pronounced in 2007, and a reverse relationship
was observed, i.e., individuals with lower SES were
characterized by higher values of those parameters.
The SES-related intergroup differences proved sig
nificant in categories of those aged 10–11 and 14–15
years, more often in 2007 (Figures 1–3).
When physical fitness was related to socioeconom
ic variability, both in 1998 and in 2007, better normal
ized results of most analyzed tests were observed in
boys aged 10–11 years and 17–18 years from families
with lower SES. In contrast, such evident relationships
were not observed in the category of 14–15-year-olds;
however, in the case of the majority of the motor tests
performed in this group higher normalized values were
documented in boys from the higher SES group. The
most pronounced differences between various socio
economic groups pertained to body flexibility and trunk
strength examined in 2007.
Discussion
Lubelszczyzna is one of the most eastern regions of
both Poland and the European Union. This province is
included in the group of provinces that are most endan
gered by poverty and is characterized by low education
al levels of the rural population. At the end of the previ
ous century, nearly 60% of rural inhabitants had only
primary or incomplete primary education; farmers with
secondary or post-secondary education corresponded
to 13.4% of this population, whereas the corresponding
fraction in Poland is 21.4% [18]. Additionally, the inhabit
ants of this region were characterized by a high number
of children per family. More than 30% of families had
four or more children [19]. Poland’s entrance into the
European Union markedly improved the economic situ
ation of families living in this region. Moreover, a grad
ual improvement with regards to the educational level
was also observed; nevertheless, the level of education
is still below the country average [20].
Families’ changing socioeconomic situation may
indirectly influence the level of somatic development
and motor capacity of children and adolescents.
However, our analysis did not reveal any considerable
changes in the effects of socioeconomic factors on the
biological development of boys from the rural areas of
Lubelszczyzna studied in 1998 and in 2007. Boys from
families with high SES are still characterized by higher
values of body height, body weight, and BMI as com
pared to their peers from the low SES group. The only
exception pertained to the participants from the oldest
age category (aged 17–18 years) studied in 2007 in
whom higher values of body height and weight were
documented in individuals originating from families with
low SES. However, Student’s t-test showed those dif
ferences to be insignificant. The results published by
Table 1. The structure of selected SES groups in the examined periods
Years of research
N in total
High SES status
N
%
Low SES status
N
%
X2
10–11-year-olds
1998
186
12
6.5
98
52.7
2007
195
54
27.7
38
19.5
54.7*
1998
165
12
7.3
61
37.0
2007
181
80
44.2
9
5.0
-
98.0*
17–18-year-olds
-
-
14–15-year-olds
1998
196
32
16.3
61
31.1
2007
108
39
36.1
8
7.4
* – statistically significant dependence, p < 0.05
– 109 –
31.4*
Table 2. Determinants of somatic features, motor abilities and flexibility – research from 1998*
Explosive
power
Trunk
strength
Agility
Speed of
upper limb
movement
0.287
6.2
Body
height
Body
mass
Father’s level of education
Mother’s level of education
0.233
0.312
4.8
7.7
Variable
Flexibility
BMI
10–11-year-olds
Number of children
Corrected R2 (%)
14–15-year-olds
0.241
0.219
0.213
4.9
6.5
3.6
–0.165
–0.247
0.330
0.226
–0.219
Number of children
Corrected R2 (%)
1.0
5.1
9.0
Explosive
power
Trunk
strength
Agility
Speed of
upper limb
movement
Number of children
Corrected R2 (%)
17–18-year-olds
* – only statistically significant standardized beta coefficients are included in the table
Table 3. Determinants of somatic features, motor abilities and flexibility – research from 2007 *
Variable
Body
height
Body
mass
0.176
0.215
–0.215
–0.430
0.169
0.223
0.231
BMI
Flexibility
10–11-year-olds
Number of children
Corrected R2 (%)
1.1
–0.263
4.2
3.2
19.9
1.0
14–15-year-olds
0.245
–0.166
–0.255
Number of children
–0.163
–0.161
Corrected R2 (%)
3.9
7.3
2.4
Number of children
–0.264
Corrected R2 (%)
8.4
* – only statistically significant standardized beta coefficients are included in the table
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-
-
-
17–18-year-olds
Strzelczyk [21] suggest that an association between
maternal and paternal education and somatic charac
teristics of children and adolescents from rural areas
is weak. In the case of maternal education, positive
coefficients of correlation were documented solely in
younger girls (aged 7–10 years) with regards to body
weight and height as well as chest and knee width.
Additionally, paternal education was found to be cor
– 110 –
related mostly with the somatic characteristics of older
boys (aged 11–15 years).
The socioeconomic situation of a family influences
the manner of spending leisure time, including the
amount of time spent on physical activity. Charzewski
[22] observed that the differences in the levels of
physical activity in children resulted from belonging
to a given social class, but occurred irrespectively of
the degree of urbanization of the place of residence.
Children from families belonging to higher social
classes participated in additional sport activities,
including sport clubs at school and other organized
forms of sport activities, more frequently than those
from lower social classes. Also, research of Blanksby
et al. [23], Brodersen et al. [24], and McVeigh et al.
[25] confirmed this aforementioned relationship, while,
in contrast, it has not been observed by BiałokozKalinowska et al. [26].
Furthermore, the studies of physical fitness in chil
dren and adolescents representing groups with high,
moderate, and low SES documented variability in the
results. Gołąb [27] analyzed children and adolescents
between 8 and 18 years of age living in Nowa Huta
and observed that the best results of standing broad
jump and envelope agility run were obtained by boys
with high SES and girls with moderate SES. In most
age categories, the best levels of relative strength
were documented in boys and girls characterized by
moderate socioeconomic conditions. In a study by
Mynarski et al. [28], conducted in the Upper Silesia
region, significant differences between girls and
women qualified to groups with moderate and high
socioeconomic status were documented only in the
case of Flamingo balance test and maximal oxygen
uptake. In boys and men, significant socioeconomic
status-related differences pertained to the results of
handgrip, strength endurance, shuttle run, and bal
anced walk tests. Based on the results of their study
of adolescents from Cracow, Mleczko and Ozimek [10]
revealed that the groups of participants from families
with poorer economic status showed higher levels of
motor capacity (with the exception of some coordina
tion skills) in most age categories. Also, our study
documented a similar tendency in categories of those
10–11 and 17–18 years of age. Participants from the
group with lower SES had better results of most motor
tests. This phenomenon may result from the fact that
currently children from families with higher socioeco
nomic status spend higher amounts of time learning,
more frequently participate in extra-school classes
and, thus, have less time for physical activity. Both
in 1998 and in 2007, a higher level of motor capacity
was documented in boys originating from families with
high SES. This may be the result of earlier maturation
of boys from parents with higher education levels, as
suggested by the results of Wilczewski’s study [29],
which was examined a rural setting.
Conclusions
1. Similar tendencies with regards to the influence
of socioeconomic variables on the somatic de
velopment and motor abilities of boys from the
Lubelszczyzna region were observed in 1998 and
in 2007.
2. High socioeconomic status of families from rural ar
eas correlated with high values of somatic develop
ment parameters in examined boys.
3. Low level of social stratification was most common
ly associated with higher values of analyzed motor
abilities and flexibility.
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