this PDF file - Archives of Mining Sciences

this PDF file - Archives of Mining Sciences

Arch. Min. Sci., Vol. 56 (2011), No 1, p. 35–46
35
Electronic version (in color) of this paper is available: http://mining.archives.pl
ALEKSANDRA JAMROZIK*, GRZEGORZ MALATA**, ANDRZEJ GONET*,
STANISŁAW STRYCZEK*
INTERACTION OF QUICKLIME (CaO) ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE AND THE PROPERTIES OF
A SALINE DRILLING WASTE
ODDZIAŁYWANIE CaO NA MIKROSTRUKTURĘ I WŁAŚCIWOŚCI ZASOLONYCH
ODPADÓW WIERTNICZYCH
Problems associated with management of saline drilling wastes are becoming more common in the
drilling industry. Saline drilling wastes are hazardous to natural environment due to the toxicity and mobility
of salt compounds as well as to the difficulties in designing both efficient and economic technology.
This article presents the results of laboratory research which are related to the possibility of changing
microstructure and limiting the salt bleaching from drilling wastes that have been treated with quicklime
and heated up. Quicklime addition has been performed in order to improve physical-chemical and mechanical parameters of the composites.
Keywords: drilling waste, waste management, desalinate drilling waste
Jednym z rodzajów odpadów przemysłowych są odpady wiertnicze, powstające w dużych ilościach
podczas prowadzenia prac wiertniczych przy poszukiwaniu i eksploatacji ropy naftowej, gazu ziemnego
lub wód termalnych.
W skład odpadów wiertniczych wchodzą głównie zużyte płuczki wiertnicze oraz zwierciny, które mogą
być skażone środkami chemicznymi, a także płynami złożowymi (ropa naftowa, gaz, solanki). Obecnie
szacuje się, że ilość odpadów wiertniczych powstających na 1 mb otworu nieco uległa zmniejszeniu
i wynosi około 0,5 m3 na 1 mb wiercenia (dawniej Hardy i Stanley, 1988 szacowali, że wynosi od 0.78
do1.3 m3 na każdy mb otworu). Ograniczenie ilości odpadowych płuczek wiertniczych spowodowane
jest postępem w technologiach wiertniczych oraz stosowaniem zamkniętych systemów oczyszczania
płuczki (Robert, 2002). W efekcie tych poczynań odpady charakteryzują się skoncentrowanym ładunkiem
zanieczyszczeń oraz większą zawartością fazy stałej – zwiercin.
Po procesie wiercenia powstają znaczne ilości odpadów wiertniczych, które są zanieczyszczone
rozpuszczalnymi solami, najczęściej pierwiastków alkalicznych w postaci chlorków, siarczanów czy
wodorowęglanów występujących w nadmiarowych ilościach. Odpady te są składowane w szczelnych,
*
FACULTY OF DRILLING, OIL AND GAS, AGH UNIVERSITY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN CRACOW, AL. MICKIEWICZA 30, 30-059 CRACOW, POLAND
** FACULTY OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND CERAMICS, AGH UNIVERSITY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN CRACOW,
AL. MICKIEWICZA 30, 30-059 CRACOW, POLAND
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: e-mail: [email protected]
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stalowych zbiornikach i co pewien czas wywożone są na składowiska odpadów lub poddawane dalszym
metodom zagospodarowania (Jamrozik, 2009).
Problemy związane z zagospodarowaniem zasolonych odpadów wiertniczych są coraz powszechniejsze w przemyśle wiertniczym. Zagrożenie środowiska naturalnego zasolonymi odpadami wiertniczymi
wynika z wysokiej toksyczności i mobilności związków soli oraz z trudności w opracowaniu skutecznej
i ekonomicznej technologii.
Zjawisko migracji soli z odpadu wykazuje dużą dynamikę w czasie, gdyż rozpuszczalne sole łatwo
przemieszczają się wraz z wodą. Sole występujące w odpadzie mogą przedostawać się do środowiska
gruntowo-wodnego i powodować jego degradację, poprzez zachwianie równowagi jonowej w kompleksie
sorpcyjnym oraz zaburzenie metabolizmu komórek organizmów roślinnych. Wiele procesów metabolicznych, jak aktywność enzymów, synteza białek, aktywność mitochondriów i chloroplastów ulega zaburzeniu
w warunkach zasolenia (Jamrozik i in., 2010).
Problem ograniczenia negatywnego oddziaływania zasolonych odpadów wiertniczych jest coraz
częściej podejmowany w literaturze, z powodu ciągłego wzrostu ilości tych odpadów, oraz z powodu
braku skutecznej metody ograniczenia negatywnego oddziaływania zasolonych odpadów na środowisko
gruntowo-wodne (Deuel i Holliday, 2001, 2003; Filippov i in., 2009; Gonet, 2006; Jamrozik i in., 2010;
Leonard i Stegemann, 2010).
W pracy przedstawiono rezultaty badań laboratoryjnych prowadzonych nad możliwością zmiany
mikrostruktury i ograniczeniem ługowania soli z odpadów wiertniczych modyfikowanych wapnem
palonym i temperaturą. Dodatek wapna palonego miał za zadanie poprawę fizyko-chemicznych oraz
mechanicznych parametrów kompozytów.
Przedmiotem badań laboratoryjnych były próbki odpadu wiertniczego i odpadu z domieszką 25%
wag. wapna palonego. Skład chemiczny odpadów wiertniczych oraz wykorzystanych dodatków przedstawiono w tabeli 1.
Materiał badawczy stanowiły próby odpadów wiertniczych pobranych ze zbiorczego składowiska odpadów oraz mieszaniny odpadów z wapnem palonym. Badane odpady pochodziły z wierceń prowadzonych
w Karpatach oraz Zapadlisku Przedkarpackim przy użyciu płuczek na bazie wody wykorzystywanych do
przewiercania warstw ilasto-łupkowych oraz do dowiercania złóż ropy naftowej i gazu ziemnego.
Mieszaniny odpadów po granulacji i wypaleniu poddano badaniom, które obejmowały:
a) analizę składu fazowego,
b) badanie mikrostruktury z analizą EDS,
c) test ługowalności w wodzie destylowanej.
Podjęta próba immobilizacji ponadnormatywnych ilości soli w odpadzie opierała się na założeniu, że
odpady wiertnicze są stabilnymi ośrodkami drobnodyspersyjnymi, tworzonymi przez kompleksy substancji
mineralnych. Zużyte płuczki przeważnie zawierały w swoim składzie takie fazy krystaliczne jak: baryt,
kalcyt, dolomit i kwarc – które to fazy pozostają w rozpatrywanych układzie nienaruszone (rys. 1).
Materiał o takim składzie po dodaniu wapna palonego wykazuje zwiększoną zdolność wiązania chlorków. Możliwość wiązania chlorków w układach zawierających reaktywne gliniany i krzemiany wykazuje
liniową zależność od ich całkowitej zawartości w materiale. Głównym czynnikiem odpowiedzialnym za
zdolność wiązania chlorków w takich układach jest zawartość reaktywnych faz glinianowych, których
reakcja z chlorkami prowadzić może do powstania chloroglinianów (Cheewaket i in., 2010). Alternatywnie
chlorki mogą być wiązane w fazie C – S – H poprzez chemisoprcję, zaadsorbowane między warstwy lub
podstawienie chemiczne (Loser i in., 2010; Zibara i in., 2008). Dodatkowo zdolność wiązania chlorków
ulega poprawie w wyniku obecności w układach dodatków pucolanowych (Loser i in., 2010) w tym
metakaolinitu (Zibara i in., 2008) oraz wapna palonego (Yuan i in., 2009).
Słowa kluczowe: odpady wiertnicze, zagospodarowanie, odpadów wiertniczych, ochrona środowiska
1. Introduction
Drilling wastes belong to one of the types of industrial waste, which is being deposited in
large amounts during drilling works (search and exploitation of oil, gas as well as hot springs).
Drilling wastes mainly consist of used drilling fluids and drilling cuttings. These types of waste
may be contaminated with chemical additives as well as deposit fluids (oil, gas, brines). At pres-
37
ent the amount of drilling waste generated per 1 meter of borehole has decreased slightly and is
estimated at about 0,5 m3. Previously the amounts were estimated at 0,78-1,3 m3 for each meter
of drilled hole (Hardy & Stanley, 1988).
The limitation of the amount of drilling fluids is the direct result of progress that have been
achieved in drilling technology as well as through utilization of closed fluid filtration systems
(Robert, 2002). Drilling wastes are now characterized by a concentrated level of pollutants and
higher content of constant phase – drilling cuttings.
At present the exploitation of usable fossil fuels requires to perform deeper drills. Consequently we have to use mainly drilling fluids which contain polymers and significant amounts of
non-organic salts. Additionally, the salinity of drilling fluids may increase due to drilling through
saline geological formations and due to the inflow of brine. As a result after the drilling procedure is
established, large amounts of drilling waste are contaminated with soluble salts. These salts mainly
contain alkaline elements associated with chlorides, sulfates or bicarbonates, which are found
in exceeding quantities. Drilling wastes are deposited in steel containers and from time to time
transported to waste dumps or subjected to subsequent management procedures (Jamrozik, 2009).
Salt migration from drilling waste indicates high time dependant behavior since soluble salts
are easily transported in water. Salts which are present in the drilling wastes may filter into the
water-ground environment and cause degradations. These degradations occur via deviation of
ionic stability in the sorption of compound as well as via changes of plant cells metabolism. Many
metabolic processes such as enzyme activity, protein synthesis, mitochondrion and chloroplasts
are distorted in saline conditions (Jamrozik et al., 2010).
The issue related to the limitation of negative impact of salty drilling wastes is becoming
more often presented in scientific literature. One of the reasons is the constant increase of the
amount of such wastes, another is the lack of efficient methods, that would limit negative impact
of salty wastes on ground-water environment (Deuel & Holliday, 2001, 2003; Filippov et al.,
2009; Gonet, 2006; Jamrozik et al., 2010; Leonard & Stegemann, 2010, Navarro-Torres et al.,
2008). Previous methods of drilling waste management possess the following drawbacks (Alba,
2008; Bakhshian, 2009; Candler & Friedheim, 2006; Gonet, 2006; Gonzalez & Crawley, 2006;
Murray, 2008; Permata & Mcbride, 2010; Rana, 2009):
• They are too expensive (re-injection, thermal desorption),
• Require usage of large energy amounts (thermal process),
• The duration of organic remediation is too long (biological methods: bio-remedy and
phyto-remedy),
• They cannot be accepted from the standpoint of rational drilling waste management
(deposition in orogenic zones).
Recent research related to the limitation of hazardous saline drilling wastes (Al-Ansary &
Al-Tabbaa, 2005, 2007; Filippov et al., 2009; Leonard & Stegemann, 2010a, 2010b; Ogechi et
al., 2010) focuses mainly on supplementing Portland cement and quicklime with silicic acid salt
solutions, phosphoric salts or sodium bi-silicate in order to stabilize wastes and transform them
into monolithic solid substances (Hydzik & Czaja, 2010). Consequently it turns out that transport
of the material is not possible as well as its further geo-technical management.
In this research the authors focus on immobilization of bleachable salts that are obtained
from a drilling waste, via quicklime and after the granulation process of this material. The abovementioned procedures are necessary if the material will be submitted to further geo-technical
usage. The main purpose of the laboratory analyses was to achieve chemical transformation of
38
waste in such a way that very aggressive waste will not be hazardous to natural environment. It
should be noted that mineral substance of waste must become an integral component of the new
material, while hazardous components must permanently bind with the new structure in the form
of crystal-chemicals which are not vulnerable to leaching.
2. Experimental procedure
Pure drilling waste samples as well as those, which contain a 25% admixture of quicklime
have been used in the laboratory analyses. Table 1 presents chemical composition of drilling
waste including all the supplements that have been added.
TABLE 1
Chemical analysis of drilling waste and quicklime
Components
Drilling waste [%]
Quicklime [%]
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
K2O
Na2O
SO3
CO2
Losses on ignition
47,10
12,37
5,66
9,81
1,47
3,17
2,89
1,21
8,01
26,17
1,00
91,81
0,53
0,38
2,62
5,00
Drilling waste samples used in the analyses have been obtained from a collective waste
dump. The drilling waste originated from the Carpathian Mountains and Carpathian Subsidence
Basin. They have been extracted by employing water based muds which have been used to re
drilling loam-clay layers and drilling into oil and gas deposits.
The drilling waste was composed of organic-mineral sets which possessed thixotropic properties. They contained a mixture of liquid state (drilling fluids) and solid state (drilling cuttings)
materials. Due to rather significant hydration (80-90%) the waste was submitted to the processes
of coagulation and filtration on a filter press. As a result we obtained a material, which showed
reduced volume and was composed of solid phase ranging from 40 to 70%.
Next the waste was granulated (in the pure form and with supplementing quicklime) in order to obtain a granulate that would be convenient for geotechnical utilization. The granulation
procedure required a 25% weight supplement with quicklime. Drilling mixtures (with quicklime)
had been submitted to roasting at 650°C.
After granulation and roasting procedures the mixtures have been subjected to the following types of analyses:
• phase composition analysis,
• studying the microstructure by SEM with employing EDS procedure,
• leaching test in distilled water.
The identification of sample phase composition of drilling waste was carried out with the
aid of X-ray diffraction, namely Debye-Scherrer-Hull powder method. In this procedure we
39
employed the X-ray difractometer (Phillips PW 1040), which was equipped with a digital system
to register impulses. CuKα radiation has been used.
Results of measurements have been registered in digital form and subsequently were processed into graphs using computer software. These graphs constitute the record of the intensity of
the diffraction of X-ray radiation depending on the angle of diffraction 2θ CuKα. The identification phase has been carried out by employing XRAYAN program, on the basis of data that was
readily available in ICDD (International Center for Diffraction Data).
Microstructure analysis was performed with electron scanning microscope Nova NanoSEM
2000 equipped with add-on device used for EDS element analysis. The samples were carbon
vaporized and subsequently analyzed in vacuum.
Leaching test has been performed in order to determine the mobility of principal ions as
well as trace elements. Drilling waste samples were immersed in water and placed in a 2 dm3
flask. Subsequently 100 gram of desiccated materials at +105°C (±2°C), were placed in the flask
and immersed in 1 dm3 of distilled water. The flask was tightly secured and shaken vigorously in
a rotating mixer for 24 hours at 21°C (±2°C). The solutions obtained from precipitation of liquids
have been drained off in filter paper and submitted to further analyses, which were to determine
the amount of leached elements as well as the pH of the solution.
The amounts of leached elements were determined by Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy on
a Philips PU – 9100× spectrophotometer.
3. Results
Results of X-ray diffraction for drilling waste, including mixtures with quicklime and products of thermal treatment at 650°C are presented on figure 1.
Figures 2 and 3 present the results of analysis revealing the microstructure, and EDS analysis
of drilling waste, as well as of samples of drilling waste with the addition of quicklime.
In table 2 chemical compositions of water extracts from drilling waste as well as water
extracts from drilling waste with the addition of quick lime are presented.
TABLE 2
Chemical composition of water extracts obtained from drilling waste
Parameter
pH At temp 21°C (± 2°C)
Concentration
Ca 2+
Mg 2+
Na +
K+
Cl HCO3-2
SO4-2
Mineralization
Extract from
drilling waste
Extract from drilling waste, which has been
supplemented with quicklime
Not fired
Fired at 650°C
8,15
11,54
11,24
359,36
97,28
795,00
822,31
4254,84
124,50
320,00
6776,03
107,50
0,04
183,70
296,20
508,00
< 0,50
32,50
1302,00
261,70
0,06
124,40
359,60
523,00
< 0,50
6,85
3104,00
Fig. 1. X-ray diffractogram (CuKα) of drilling waste (1) and drilling waste modified with lime (2) including products of thermal treatment of this particular
mixture with fixed temperature of 650°C (3)
40
41
Fig. 2. Microstructure of drilling waste, a) not subjected to thermal treatment, b) fired at 650oC
42
Fig. 3. Microstruture of drilling waste modified with quicklime, a) not subjected to thermal treatment,
b) burned at 650°C
43
4. Discussion of results
The attempt to immobilize excessive salt amounts in the drilling waste was based on the
assumption that drilling waste constitute stable finely dispersed centers, which are created by
mineral substance complexing. Used drilling fluids mainly consisted of crystal phases such as:
barite, calcite, dolomite and quartz. It should be noted that the above-mentioned phases remain
undisturbed in this particular set (fig. 1). We can also detect some amounts of clay silicates
muscovite/illite and kaolin (Gk). We should note that in this case there is no indication of the
presence of chloride salts. This is probably due to possibility of formation many hydrated form
of calcium or them insignificant size (fig. 1).
After the material with the above-mentioned composition is mixed with quicklime it clearly
indicates higher capability to bind chlorides. The possibility of binding chlorides within sets,
which contain reactive clays and silicates indicates a linear dependence, which pertains to the
total composition of these minerals in the material. The principal component, which is responsible for chloride binding capability in such sets, is the reactive clay phase content. It should be
noted that reaction of this phase with chlorides may lead to development of aluminate chlorides
(Cheewaket et al., 2010). Alternatively the chlorides can be related to C-S-H phase via chemical
sorption, via adsorption between the layers, and through chemical substitution (Loser et al., 2010;
Zibara et al., 2008). Subsequently the binding capability of chlorides is improved as a result of
the presence of pozolan supplements within the sets (Loser et al., 2010), metakaolinite (Zibara
et al., 2008) and quicklime (Yuan et al., 2009). In calcium-silicate sets the chloride binding
capability in C-S-H phase depends on the ratio of considered material C/S (Zibara et al., 2008).
High ratio of Al2O3/SO3 indicates greater probability of creation of lime clay-sulfate (AFm type
– monosulfate, and AFt type tri-sulfate), which in consequence facilitates the creation of Friedel
salt (Loser et al., 2010).
Introduction of calcium oxide into the drilling waste (with 40-70% humidity by weight)
leads to creation of significant amounts of hydrocalumite, most likely Friedel salt (fig. 1). The
excessive amount of calcium which was introduced remains in the sample in the form of calcium
hydroxide (portlandite) or is carbonated into calcite. It is also possible that we will encounter
calcium carbonate in the form of waterite. Development of Friedel salt is a typical manifestation
of chemical chloride binding within the material structure.
Thermal treatment of drilling waste at 650°C (fig. 1) leads to significant changes in the
phase composition. In particular, in the sample which contains drilling waste without any supplements we will encounter dehydratation of hydrated alkaline claysilicates, including complete
decomposition of kaolin (into metakaolinite) and illite (into metaillite). Established phases possess amorphous character and cannot be detected using XRD technology. It should be noted that
the sample contains traces of dehydroxylated muscovite. When the sample modified with lime
undergoes thermal treatment we will observe decomposition of aluminate chloride phase and
portlandite. It should be noted that this process is not accompanied by creation of new phases
(on the contrary amorphous and sub-microcrystal phases are created – fig. 1). Temperature range
used in this process enables the achievement of the early phase of calcium silicate formation.
In order to supplement data regarding the phase composition of described drilling waste
samples we have performed microstructure analysis by employing SEM technique, which was
subsequently supported by EDS analysis. The analysis of drilling waste microstructure (fig. 2a)
indicates presence of clay mineral plates (illite and muscovite type), which possess clearly visible
44
layered structure (A2). In this figure we can also detect dominating fine grain microstructures,
which contain loosely bind aluminosilicates and dispersed chlorides (A1). Thermal treatment
of drilling waste (fig. 2b) leads to delamination of the structure of clay minerals, which might
potentially increase their reactivity and sorption capability. In the area B1 on fig. 2b we can also
recognize traces of dehydratation of clay minerals, which possess clearly delaminated layered
structure, which are set against typical finely grained aluminosilicates.
The analysis of the microstructure of drilling waste with the addition of 25% (by weight)
of quicklime (3A) clearly acknowledges the presence of calcium aluminosilicates grains (A1).
The composition and type of grains detected in point A2 allow us to recognize Friedel salt (set
against the background of C-S-H phase), white at point A3 we encounter an agglomerate of
hydrated aluminates and silicates, which contain chlorides.
The microstructure of drilling waste with the addition of quicklime (25% by weight) burned
at 650C is presented in fig. 3b. Thermal activation of the mixture enabled synthesin of certain
amount of calcium silicates (belite), which are visible at point B1. In subsequent points we can
clearly see the distributed remains of clay minerals (B2), and calcium silicates with certain amount
of chloride phase (B3, B4).
Summing up the microstructure analysis we should point out that SEM analysis confirms
previous studies regarding the phase composition of studies samples, as well as it provides
valuable information about the microstructure of these materials. Apart from recognized crystal
phases (XRD analysis), which are also visible in the microscopic analysis we have detected in
samples the occurrence of gel phases, which were subsequently identified as products of hydration of active elements of drilling fluids including supplements that have been introduced. In
particular we have noticed that the introduction of quicklime increases the amount of phases,
which possess capability to immobilize chlorides. The dispersion of chlorides compounds within
the structure or within the form of easily soluble minerals observed in non-modified samples is
substituted by their placement in the C-S-H phase and in calcium chloro aluminates. Thermal
treatment of drilling waste samples causes delamination of clay mineral structure, which can lead
to the potential increase of reactivity and sorption capability. In addition it enables development
of reactive phases against water (calcium silicate).
The analysis of the chemical composition of water extracts obtained from drilling waste
is presented in table 2. The extraction of waste has been performed using distilled water. In the
light of obtained results we are able to claim that leakage from drilling waste constitute solutions
with a high pH content ( with addition of quicklime about 11, while without any supplements
their pH is equal to about 8.
Results pertaining to drilling waste extraction indicate that potassium and sodium salts are
easily washed out with distilled water from the drilling waste and subsequently are precipitated
in the form of chlorides, sulfides, and bicarbonates. In contrast calcium and magnesium salts are
difficult to precipitate. The addition of quicklime into the drilling waste causes limitation of the
ion wash out intensity. This is associated with the creation of additional phases (Friedel salt, belite,
portlandite). Having said that the addition of quicklime limit the process of ion wash out.
45
5. Conclusions
In the light of the performed analyses we can ascertain that:
1. SEM microstructure analysis confirms previous analyses pertaining to the phase composition of studies samples as well as provide us with information about the microstructure
of these materials. Apart from the recognized crystal phases (XRD analysis), which
are also visible in microscopic study, we did confirm the presence of gel phases in the
samples, which have been identified as the products of hydration of active drilling mud
components including supplements that have been introduced;
2. introduction of quicklime increases amount of phases, which indicate chloride immobilization capability. The dispersion of chlorides compounds within the structure or within
the form of easily soluble minerals observed in non-modified samples is substituted by
their placement in the C-S-H phase and in calcium chloroaluminates. This indication is
supported by analyses of chemical composition, where we can notice a clear decrease of
ion concentration in water extracts;
3. thermal treatment of drilling waste samples causes delamination of clay minerals structure,
which could potentially increase their reactivity as well as sorption capability. In addition
it allows for development of reactive phases towards water (calcium silicate);
4. quicklime (CaO) is suitable for stabilization of desalinate drilling waste, which contain
dioctaedric 3-package clay minerals (illite/montmorillonite). After mixing desalinate drilling waste with quicklime the majority of hazardous elements are concentrated within the
structures of stable aluminosilicate phases. It should be noted that these phases might or
to a slight extent could be washed out in water, which subsequently will not be hazardous
to the ground-water environment.
Works performed within statutory research program no. 11.11.190.01 at the Faculty of Drilling, Oil and Gas, AGH University of Science and Technology in Cracow, Poland.
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Received: 21 November 2010