FLY ASH IN A SUSTAINED DEVELOPMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FLY ASH IN A SUSTAINED DEVELOPMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FLY ASH IN A SUSTAINED DEVELOPMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Anna M. Grabiec1, Teresa Grabiec-Mizera2, Grzegorz Słowek3
1
University of Life Sciences, Department of Theory of Structures and Agricultural Building Engineering,
ul. Piątkowska 94, 61-691 Poznań, Poland, E-mail: [email protected]
2
Poznan University of Technology, Institute of Structural Engineering, ul. Piotrowo 5, 60-965 Poznań, Poland
E-mail: [email protected]
3
Poznan University of Technology, Institute of Structural Engineering, ul. Piotrowo 5, 60-965 Poznań, Poland
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. Civil engineering including the concrete technology and its related branches are considered as a source of
negative changes in the natural environment. A special attention is paid to an emission of the carbon dioxide accompanying the production of cement. The main property of future concrete will be their environmental friendliness (according to Aitcin, “concrete of tomorrow will be green, green, green”). Hence, the pro-environmental trends resulting
from the sustained development force qualitative changes of cements, with a preference to Portland cement with additives and application of recycled products, including the fly ash. Besides the environmental and economic advantages, technological ones are also probable under a condition of a selective choice of a binder to given service conditions. The paper concerns possibilities of application of the Portland blended fly ash cement with a simultaneous use
of the fly ash as a substitute for a fraction of cement. The case study is concrete used in objects of a sewage-treatment
plants. An absolutely positive influence of the considered use of both components on rheological properties of the
concrete mix was observed with no negative effects on the hardened concrete properties.
Keywords: concrete, fly ash, Portland blended fly ash cement, sustained development.
future generations and should simultaneously protect a
natural environment.
A strategy of the sustained development affects many fields and with respect to civil engineering it concerns
first of all:
− energy consumption and related emission of
CO2,
− adaptation of buildings to climate changes (global warming) including not just waste reduction
but also heat gain reduction (passive protection
against sun-action), utilisation of heat accumulation by buildings and a very important aspect
of a proper strategy for ventilation of interiors,
− reduction of pollution (at its source) and utilisation of ecological protection against pollution
and noise,
− waste management, reduction of waste amount,
segregation, recycling and a proper choice of
materials, which production consumes minimal
amounts of energy and water.
At the Akita University in Japan in November 2009
the VI International Conference “Materials Engineering
Resources” was held. Its main idea was to shape new
concepts leading to the sustained development. The in-
Introduction
The sustained development and an ecological design
have a special significance in civil engineering, since this
branch of the state economy has a large consumption of
energy and materials, (Cywiński 2008).
It should be emphasized, that the sustained development
results from philosophic aspects but it is also a civilisation necessity. Civil engineering involves over 40 % of
the produced energy, 50 % of the total mass of materials
used and emits 35 % of glass-house gases.
The European Commission announced the project of
Disposal replacing the Directive 89/106/WE, which will
introduce the sustained development of civil engineering
as a fundamental requirement (Czarnecki and Kaproń
2010). The civil engineering structures should be designed, erected, used and demolished in the way according to the sustained development requirements.
The sustained development does not necessarily increase investment costs and in every instance it should
reduce service costs of civil engineering structures by an
environment protection and an improvement of the life
quality for people using it. A fulfillment of current needs
cannot endanger possibilities of a fulfillment of needs for
78
hydration heat production is smaller with lower
temperature of concrete bulk as a result what is
very important in the case of large structures
due to the risk of concrete cracking under thermal stress,
− reduction of cement amount leading to decrease
of shrinkage,
− reduction of frost resistance due to the slow
progress of pucolane reaction (this feature can
be improved using plasticisers and airentraining admixtures),
− increase of chemical resistance (the contact
with an aggressive environment is allowed only
after concrete reaches required technical properties).
In the present paper utilisation of Portland blended
fly ash cement with simultaneous addition of fly ash as a
partial substitute for the cement in concrete for sewagetreatment plants is addressed.
According to Jasiczak (2004), Jasiczak and
Jaroszyński (2004), Wysocki (2004) Madryas and Wysocki (2008) waste water and other liquids in sewagetreatment plants may include large amounts of organic
substances, including proteins. As a result of sulphate
reduction by anaerobic bacteria and biological decomposition of proteins hydrogen sulphide is created and fermentation reduces pH of deposits even to the values of
1.8 – 4.5.
Hydrogen sulphide can be oxidated to sulphur,
which deposits on concrete surfaces over the water level.
Thiobacillus bacteria oxidate sulphur to sulphuric acid,
which attacks calcium hydroxide. The product of this
reaction is calcium sulphate (gypsum), which cristallizes
with two particles of water increasing its volume by
130 %. Gypsum can combine with three-calcium aluminate forming the Candlot salt (also called “delayed ettringite” or “cement virus”), which cristallizes with a
volume increase of 227%.
The cristallizing gypsum and Candlot salt initially
cause cracks and breaking and finally – a complete destruction of structure of concrete.
However, the high chemical resistance to sulphate
attack was confirmed by some authors (Giergiczny et. al
2002) (Giergiczny and Gawliński 2004), (Giergiczny
2008) in the case of Portland blended fly ash cements.
Fig 1 shows the expansion of cement mortars, made of
various cements, subjected to sodium sulphate action.
Elongation which expresses the corrosion process in
sulphate environment turned out to be the least when just
Portland blended fly ash cement was used whereas the
blast furnace slag cement was the weakest.
Sahmaran et. al. (2007) showed that Portland blended fly ash cement performs much better than sulphate
resistant Portland cement with a C3A content of 3,6 %.
According to the standard PN-EN 197-1:2002/A3
December 2007, there are twenty seven commonly used
cements. They are divided into five groups:
– CEM I – Portland cement,
– CEM II – Portland blended cement,
– CEM III – blast furnace slag cement,
troductory lectures were delivered by prof. Brajendra
Misha from Colorado School of Mines, USA on „Material recycling for sustainability” and by prof. Lech Czarnecki from the Institute of Fundamental Technological
Research in Warsaw, Poland on “Sustainable construction
as a research area” (co-authored by Marek Kaproń).
The call for the sustained development formulated in
1987 in the UNO currently became an important civilisation idea in Europe (Czarnecki and Kaproń 2010) – “satisfaction of current needs does not limit possibilities of
satisfation of needs for future generations”.
The fundaments of unification of European requirements in this context should be formed by standards issued by the European Committee for Standardization.
They will deal with:
– assessment of influence of buildings on the enivirionment
– environmental declarations for construction materials
– assessment of the full life cycle of buildings
and civil engineering structures
The sustained development with respect to concrete
means not just durability during a service period but also
a rational utilisation of materials and energy required in
its production as well as a protection of environment,
(Chłądzyński 2004), (Chłądzyński and Garbacik 2006),
(Czarnecki and Kurdowski 2006), (Richelle 2004).
Formation of waste should by minimised and quantities of recycled waste should not deteriorate technical and
economical effects obtained due to resulting products
(Richelle 2004).
The cement industry utilises energy production byproducts: slag and fly ash, as additives in the cement
binder production.
Reduction of clinker amount in cement causes an
energy consumption decrease during the production and
reduces the carbon dioxide emission (Czarnecki and Kurdowski 2006), (Hewlett 2004), (Richelle 2004), (Peukert
2000), (Tande and Krishnaswamy 2009). The very cements with mineral additives are hydraulic binders commonly used in the production of commercial concrete.
Fly ash in concrete technology
Fly ash is a standard additive to the Portland cement.
But only the one obtained by an electrostatic or mechanical precipitation of ash particles from exhaust gas in boiler houses fuelled by the anthracite ash or the hard coal
(Jamroży 2003).
It should be pointed out, that an introduction of fly
ash to concrete causes among others (Jamroży 2003),
(Jasiczak and Mikołajczyk 1997), (Rudżonis and Ivanauskas 2004), (Kosior-Kazberuk and Lelusz 2007):
− delay of initial and final setting time of concrete
mix,
− delay in early compressive strength development in natural conditions, which increases more in lower temperature; after 90 days of hardening the concrete strength can be higher than
for the concrete without fly ash addition; in the
period of slower development of strength the
79
–
–
Table 1. Chemical and mineral composition of Portland cement
CEM I
CEM IV – pucolane cement,
CEM V – blended cement.
Chemical
compound
Ignition loss
Insoluble parts
CaO
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
MgO
SO3
K2O
Na2O
Cl −
Content
[%]
3.2
0.9
62.7
19.9
5.2
2.8
1.3
2.7
0.78
0.11
0.066
Mineral
compound
C3S
C2S
C3A
C4AF
Content
[%]
54.4
15.9
8.9
8.3
Table 2. Chemical and mineral composition of Portland
blended fly ash cement CEM II/B-V
Chemical compound
Ignition loss
Insoluble parts
CaO
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
MgO
SO3
K2O
Na2O
Fig 1. Expansion of mortars made of various cements in
sulphate corrosion environment (Giergiczny et. al.
2002)
The mentioned above standard gives the content of
main and additional components for each group. Regarding cements CEM II, the amount ranges of silica fly ash
and lime fly ash are from 6-20% and from 21–35 % for
CEM II/A-V or CEM II/A-W and CEM II/B-V or CEM
II/B-W, respectively. According to this division, cement
CEM II/B-V was chosen as the main binder for experiments.
In the following results of testing of concrete with
Portland blended fly ash cement are presented.
Cl −
Content
[%]
0.8
0.9
54.7
27.7
6.1
2.1
3.3
2.5
0.70
0.33
0.050
Mineral
compound
Fly ash
CaSO4⋅2H2O
C3S
C2S
C3A
C4AF
Content
[%]
30.0
4.0
38.9
11.6
6.5
6.1
Table 3. Chemical composition and physical properties of fly
ash
Experimental section
Used materials and scope of experiments
Two types of cement were used in experiments: the
Portland blended fly ash cement CEM II/B-V and the
Portland cement CEM I for comparison. The fly ash used
as a substitute for a part of a cement binder came from a
powerplant. The characteristics of both cements and fly
ash are given in Tables: 1, 2 and 3. Materials fulfilled
requirements of the standards: PN-EN 1971:2002/A3:2007 and PN-EN 450-1:2009, respectively.
An aggregate with components from local deposits had a
form of a gravel-sand mixture with maximal grain size of
16 mm. It was designed to meet the requirement of the
maximal tightness of aggregate composition. The concrete mixes were fluidified using a policarboxylate superplasticizer. The concrete compositions are given in Table 4.
Properties of the concrete mixes like: consistence
and its change in time as well as the air content were
determined. For the hardened concrete water absorption,
water-tightness (after 28 and 90 days of maturing) and
compressive strength (after 2, 7, 28 and 90 days) were
Characteristic
Content
Ignition loss [%]
Finness [%]
Specific gravity [g/cm3]
Pucolane activity factor
after 28 days
Free lime [%]
SO3 [%]
3.05
23.7
2.14
Requirement
according to
PN-EN 450:1998
≤ 5.0
≤ 4.0
no requirements
79
≥ 75
0.12
0.43
0.01
≤ 1.0
≤ 3.0
≤ 0.10
Cl − [%]
Table 4. Concrete mix compositions
Amount per 1 m3
Mix mark
1
2
3
355
355
355
Cement [kg]
706
706
706
Gravel 2-8 mm [kg]
706
706
706
Gravel 8-16 mm [kg]
85
85
85
Fine sand [kg]
424
424
424
Coarse sand [kg]
160.5
160.5
160.5
Water [dm3]
Fly ash *) [%]
25
Superplasticiser **) [%]
0.3
0.3
0.3
*)
amount of the fly ash is expressed as a percentage of the
cement mass
**)
amount of the superplasticiser is expressed as a percentage
of the cement mass
Component
80
The air content was: 2.9 %; 3.2 % and 2.9 % for the
cement CEM I mix, the cement CEM II/B-V mix and the
cement CEM II/B-V mix with the partial fly ash substitute, respectively.
Results of testing of water absorption and watertightness for concrete with various types of cements are
presented in Table 5.
tested. Experiments on concrete mixes and hardened
concretes were carried out according to the methods from
the novel standards: PN-EN 12350-5:2001, PN-EN
12350-7:2001, PN-EN 12390-8:2001 and PN-EN 123903:2002.
Five measurements for each series (1- CEM I mix,
2 – CEM II/B-V mix, 3 – CEM II/B-V with 25% fly ash
substitute) were carried out with reference to consistence
of concrete mix.
The air content in concrete mixes (five measurements for each series) was determined using the autoclave type 8 L B 2020 of Swiss make.
The number of specimens (cubes of 150x150x150
mm dimensions) for testing concrete water absorption
after each period of maturing was three for the series “1”
and six for series “2” and “3”, respectively.
The water-tightness was tested using six cubic specimens of 150x150x150 mm dimensions for each series.
The specimens were placed in a special pressure apparatus and subjected to the action of water under the constant
pressure of 0.5 MPa during 72 hours. To avoid an uncontrolled water leaking the sides of the specimens subjected
to the pressure were sealed using an epoxy resin layer.
The range of this layer was assumed in a way enabling
the testing of the clean unsealed surface of 75 mm diameter. After the testing time the specimens were taken out
from the apparatus, the upper surfaces, which contacted
with water were wiped and immediately afterwards the
specimens were broken in the direction parallel of the
water action in order to determine the penetration depth.
The compressive strength (tested on cubes150x150x150 mm dimensions) was determined using
the strength machine 107/3000 A DIG. 2000-P.C of
Swiss make. The number of specimens was three for the
series “1” and six for series “2” and “3”, respectively.
Table 5. Water absorption and water-tightness of concrete
samples after 28 and 90 days of maturing
Concrete mark
1 (cement CEM I)
2 (cement CEM
II/B-V)
3 (cement CEM
II/B-V, with 25% fly
ash substitute )
Compressive strength
[MPa]
Concrete mix flow [cm]
Results of testing of concrete mix consistence are illustrated in Fig 2.
80
1
40
2
20
3
20
40
after 28
days
after 90
days
24
29
5.3
5.2
24
26
5.4
5.3
28
29
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
0
50
100
Time [days]
Fig 3. Development of concrete compressive strength in
time (1 –cement CEM I concrete; 2 – cement CEM II/BV concrete; 3 –cement CEM II/B-V concrete with 25%
fly ash substitute)
0
0
Depth of water of
penetration [mm]
Results of testing of compressive strength variation
in time for 150x150x150 mm concrete samples are presented in Fig 3.
The experiments carried out proved, that a simultaneous application of the ash cement CEM II/B-V and the
fly ash is more clearly expressed in an advantageous influence on the concrete mix properties than on the hardened concrete properties. The concrete mix with the Portland blended fly ash cement and a 25 % fly ash substitute
has a larger and longer lasting level of fluidity combined
with a preserved uniformity.
Results of experiments and discussion
60
Water absorption [%]
after
after 28
90
days
days
5.1
5.2
60
Total elapsed time [min]
The influence of the simultaneous application of the
cement CEM II/B-V and ash on water absorption, watertightness and concrete strength can be considered as neutral. These parameters remained on the level similar to
parameters of the concrete with the cements CEM I and
CEM II/B-V.
With respect to the compressive strength measured
until 90 days it is pointed out that the slowest development was observed for the concrete with the cement CEM
II/B-V and the fly ash substitute (concrete “3”). It was
Fig 2. Variation of concrete mix consistence in time
(1 – cement CEM I mix; 2 –cement CEM II/B-V mix;
3 –cement CEM II/B-V mix with 25% fly ash substitute)
It is pointed out that the mix “1” after 45 minutes did
not exhibit any flow measurable using the flow table (the
last measurable value was obtained after 30 minutes).
81
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przyszłość betonu [Trends shaping the future of concrete].
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[Building Materials] 1: 69–71.
Giergiczny, Z.; Małolepszy, J.; Szwabowski, J.; Śliwiński, J.
2002. Cementy z dodatkami mineralnymi w technologii
nowej generacji [Cements with mineral additives in technology of new generation concrete]. Opole: Górażdże
Cement Heilderberg Cement Group.189 pp. ISBN-8388672-23-1.
Giergiczny, Z.; Gawlicki, M. 2004. Popiół lotny jako aktywny
składnik cementów i dodatek do betonów [Fly ash as an
active cement component and mineral additive to concrete]. Dni Betonu , Tradycja i Nowoczesność, Wisła
2004, Poland, 277–283.
Giergiczny, Z. 2008. Popiół lotny składnikiem betonu – normalizacja i praktyka [Fly ash as a concrete component –
normalisation and practice]. Dni Betonu, Tradycja i
Nowoczesność, Wisła 2008, Poland, 903–912.
Hewlett, P. 2004. Przyszłość betonu – istotne trendy i zmiany
[The future of concrete – essential trends and changes].
Dni Betonu, Tradycja i Nowoczesność, Wisła 2004, Poland, 256–275.
Jamroży, Z. 2003. Beton i jego technologie [Concrete and its
technology]. Warszawa-Kraków: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. 485 p. ISBN-83-01-13993-5.
Jasiczak, J.; Mikołajczyk, P. 1997. Technologia betonu modyfikowanego domieszkami i dodatkami [Technology of
concrete modified by admixtures and additives]. Poznań:
Wydawnictwo Politechniki Poznańskiej. 164 p. ISBN-837143-083-3.
Jasiczak, J. 2004. Kształtowanie właściwości betonu w obiektach przesyłania i oczyszczania ścieków sanitarnych.
[Forming of concrete properties in waste water treatment
and transport facilities]. Dni Betonu, Tradycja i Nowoczesność, Wisła 2004, Poland, 544–567.
Jasiczak, J.; Jaroszyński, T. 2004. Wymagany zakres badań
laboratoryjnych niezbędny do właściwego zaprojektowania żelbetowych obiektów oczyszczalni ścieków i
celowego doboru powłok ochronnych [Required range of
laboratory testing necessary for a proper design of reinforced concrete waste water treatment plants and purposeful selection of protective coatings]. Dni Betonu, Tradycja
i Nowoczesność, Wisła 2004, Poland, 631–653.
Jasiczak, J.; Jaroszyński, T. 2006. Projektowanie betonowych
oczyszczalni ścieków z uwzględnieniem ich trwałości [Design of concrete waste water treatment plants taking into
account their durability], Materiały Budowlane [Building
materials] 11: 4–9.
Jasiczak, J. 2007. Podejście normowe do projektowania i realizacji betonowych obiektów oczyszczania i przesyłania
ścieków z uwzględnieniem zapisów podstawowych norm
PN-EN wprowadzonych w latach 2002-2005. [Code ap-
especially pronounced in the initial period of maturing.
The strength after 90 days was similar for all the tested
series and ranged between 58 and 60 MPa.
These trends are confirmed by results of preceding
testing carried out by Giergiczny et al. (2002). According
to these tests, which compared concrete with fly ash addition and concrete from Portland cement, the concrete
strength after two days setting in the case of fly ash was
59 % of the strength of Portland cement concrete. After
seven days it was 69 %, after 28 days – 90.6 % and after
90 days it already proved to be higher by 9.5 %.
Final remarks
Requirements of sustained development impose specified demands related to the civil engineering activities.
Besides the aspects resulting from the necessity of environment protection and reduction of CO2 emission, limitation of industrial waste is essential. Some additional
effects can be achieved using by-products, which are
produced with large energy consumption – slags and fly
ash. The cement industry makes use of them to the large
extent.
In the light of data from the literature presented in
the paper, including the ones representing the contemporary trends, according to which the mixed cements with
mineral additives will form a majority of commercial
binders (Aictin 2000), (Neville 2000), and the results of
the presented experiments, promotion of the Portland
blended fly ash cement should be considered as purposeful. Its simultaneous application with fly ash in concretes
for sewage-treatment plants is also recommended due to
ecological, economical and technological reasons.
Additional advantages include a better workability
of concrete mixes with Portland cements and additives
like fly ash and higher resistance in an corrosive environment. According to the standard PN-EN 206-1:2003
the cement CEM II/B-V can be applied in almost all classes of exposition, excluding XF3 – XF4. On this base
many authors positively assess application possibilities in
a construction of sewage-treatment plants, (Jasiczak
2007), (Jasiczak and Jaroszyński 2006), (Madryas and
Wysocki 2008).
It should be pointed out that lower compressive
strength of concrete in an initial period of hardening requires an extended time in boarding for naturally maturing elements.
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83