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STUDIA
GEOLOGICA
POLONICA
Vol. 126, Kraków 2006, pp. 5–76.
Hydrogeology and Hydrogeochemistry
Edited by J. Dowgia³³o
Part II
Dorota KACZOR1
The salinity of groundwater in Mesozoic and Cenozoic
aquifers of NW Poland – origin and evolution2
(Figs 1–33; Tabs 1–4)
Abstract. Chemical composition of saline groundwaters occurring in the Mesozoic deposits of NW
Poland, based on 285 archival chemical analyses from 113 deep boreholes, shows much similarity
within particular aquifers. These are mostly chloride-sodium waters. Chloride-sodium-calcium
waters predominate only within the Lower Triassic aquifer. Chloride-sodium-magnesium waters
appear only at isolated locations. All the waters studied are typical of a high mineralization (TDS), the
latter increases with the aquifer depth up to a maximum of 328 g/dm3 (Objezierze IG-1 well). The
TDS of these brines, measured systematically over the last 40 years at production wells in the health
resorts Ko³obrzeg, Kamieñ Pomorski, Œwinoujœcie and Po³czyn Zdrój, is nearly constant and directly
proportional to the concentration of Cl– ion.
The brines in Mesozoic aquifers of NW Poland are polygenetic. Their main components are fossil
seawater and meteoric water. Holocene infiltration water is a local admixture in the upper part of the
Mesozoic succession only.
The hydrochemical indicators (Br–:J–, Cl–:J–, Cl–:Br–, Ca2+:Sr2+, rNa+:rCl–) and the isotope
ratios of oxygen, hydrogen and strontium suggest that the salinity of waters in the Mesozoic deposits
is related to their marine origin and, to a lesser extent, to the dissolution of Zechstein and Triassic salts.
Dissolution of Zechstein salts could occur in contact zones with groundwaters within the Mesozoic
until the chemical balance between them has been established. Such contacts are currently observed at
base of the Lower Triassic rock as well as in 18 salt structures piercing the Triassic aquifers. Brines
within the Triassic rock contain an admixture of residual (evaporite-related) liquids associated with
the Zechstein and Triassic salt series.
The saline waters within the Mesozoic rock complex are under pressure, which enables their
upward migration through a system of fractures and faults towards the Cenozoic aquifers. This
process is most intense in hydrogeological windows developed in areas of erosional reduction of the
overlying Oligocene clays on uplifted tectonic blocks and salt-cored anticlines.
The extent of increased groundwater salinity zones in Cenozoic deposits depends on flow
directions in the active circulation zones. Therefore, these salinity zones, which occupy 33% of the
study area, do not always coincide with the zones of brine ascension.
1
2
Institute of Geological Sciences, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Twarda 51/55,
00-818 Warszawa, Poland; e-mail: [email protected]
Manuscript received October 16, 2006. Manuscript accepted for publication December 4th 2006.
6
D. KACZOR
The ascent of saline water is hazardous to the quality of Major Groundwater Reservoirs (MGR).
This concerns the MGRs of Uznam (101) and Wolin islands (102), Roœcino (103) and Dêbno (134), as
well as large municipal groundwater intakes, such as those in Œwinoujœcie (“Wydrzany”), Wolin,
Trzebiatów, Gryfice, Ko³obrzeg (“Roœciêcino” and “Bogucino”), Koszalin, Goleniów, Nowogard,
Gryfino (“Tywa” and “Dolna Odra”), Krzypnica, Stargard Szczeciñski, Choszczno, Wa³cz and
Czarnków locations.
Key words: Groundwater, salinity, brine ascension, NW Poland.
INTRODUCTION
The knowledge of the origin, chemical composition, and conditions of occurrence of saline groundwaters in the Mesozoic deposits of NW Poland is important
for proper groundwater management. These waters have been utilized for salt production in Ko³obrzeg since the 8th century (Leciejewicz, 1960). Beginning from
the 19th century, they have been exploited for therapeutic purposes in the health resorts of Ko³obrzeg, Kamieñ Pomorski, Œwinoujœcie and, after World War II, also at
Po³czyn Zdrój. By the end of the 20th century, brines from the Mesozoic deposits
have become the subject of interest as a source of thermal energy, e.g. in geothermal
heating plants at Pyrzyce and Stargard Szczeciñski. Production of this energy is favoured by suitable geological conditions in the area.
The knowledge of geological conditions under which the brines occur has a crucial significance for proper management of fresh groundwater. Ascending brines
are hazardous to the quality of usable aquifers (Kaczor, 2005). Due to this process, a
number of groundwater intakes have already been closed in West Pomerania, e.g.
those at Œwinoujœcie, Kamieñ Pomorski, Strze¿ewo, ¯ó³cin, and Bia³ogard. Therefore, the recognition of zones of ascension of saline waters and the determination of
mechanisms of this process are of particular importance for the protection of usable
groundwater reserves.
The main purpose of this paper is to elucidate the origin of salinity of groundwaters in the Mesozoic deposits of NW Poland, and to characterize salinity of the associated Cenozoic aquifers that are influenced by ascending brines. The study area
covers approximately 26,000 km2, being confined by the Baltic Sea coastline, the
state border with Germany, the Warta and Noteæ River valleys, and the meridian 17
E (Figs 1, 2). The paper summarizes data concerning the chemical composition of
groundwaters in the Mesozoic aquifers and in the health resort intakes (the latter
were collected over the last 40 years). The paper also addresses important problems
of salinity caused by anthropogenic contamination, as well as the salinity related to
coastal intrusions of Baltic sea-water. The available hydrochemical data were carefully selected and verified in an attempt to eliminate measurements indicating that
the salinity originates from the above-mentioned sources. Possible hazard to the
Major Groundwater Reservoirs and to the main groundwater intakes due to development of the upward migration of saline waters from the Mesozoic aquifers is
discussed.
SALINITY OF GROUNDWATER, NW POLAND
Fig. 1.
7
Geological map of NW Poland without Cenozoic deposits (after Dadlez ed., 2000)
The main subject of interest of the present paper is groundwater from Mesozoic
formations, with reference to the definition of saline water presented in the Hydrogeological Glossary (Dowgia³³o et al., ed., 2002). For Cenozoic aquifers, groundwater with concentration of chloride ion >30 mg/dm3, caused by brines ascending
from the Mesozoic complex, was taken into consideration. This boundary value is
considered to be indicative of a developing process in salinization of usable fresh
groundwaters (Macioszczyk, 1991; Grube, 2000; Górski, 2001).
PREVIOUS RESEARCH
Scientific papers published in the 18th and 19th centuries gave descriptions of
numerous natural springs and outflows of saline waters, single chemical analyses of
8
Fig. 2.
D. KACZOR
Sketch map of tectonic units of the study area (after Po¿aryski, ed., 1974)
brines as well as indicated halophyte sites near Mrze¿yno, Ko³obrzeg, Bia³ogard,
Pyrzyce and Miedwie Lake (Brüggemann, 1799; Ascherson, 1859; Deecke, 1898).
Halophytes are salinity indicator plants for near-surface groundwater. Research on
and prospection for therapeutic waters, bitumens and thermal waters gave rise to a
number of reports describing occurrence conditions of saline waters in the Polish
Lowlands (Œwidziñski, 1954; Kolago, 1957, 1964; Dowgia³³o, 1961, 1965a, b;
Bojarski & Depowski, 1963; Pazdro & Agopsowicz, 1964; Depowski et al., 1965;
Bojarska & Bojarski, 1968; Bojarski, 1966, 1970, 1993; Bojarski et al., 1977;
D¹browski, 1973; P³ochniewski & Stachowiak, 1980; Soko³owska & Soko³owski,
1990; Górecki (ed.), 1995; Górecki & Szczepañski, 1991; Soko³owski et al., 1993,
1995; Bojarski & Soko³owski, 1994; Soko³owski, 1997; Kapuœciñski et al., 1997:
Bojarski & Sadurski, 2000).
The principal processes controlling the formation of saline waters and brines are
the following ones: sea water evaporation, dissolution of salt-bearing rocks, reactions between water and the rock, and membrane filtration (Land & Prezbindowski,
1981; Leœniak, 2005; Stoessell & Moore, 1983; McCaffrey et al., 1987; Connolly
et al., 1990a; Fisher & Boles, 1990; Fontes & Matray, 1993a, b; Nativ, 1996; Chi &
Savard, 1997; Davisson et al., 1994; Davisson & Criss, 1996; Branks et al., 2002;
Tijani, 2004). Seawater retained in the rock and dissolution of halite are the sources
9
of groundwater salinity, most often reported by research workers (Egeberg &
Aagaard, 1989; Fisher & Boles, 1990; Davisson et al., 1994; Nativ, 1996; Chi &
Savard, 1997; Branks et al., 2002; Tijani, 2004).
There are two dominant hypotheses in the debate on the causes of salinity in waters within Mesozoic aquifers of the Polish Lowlands. In numerous, particularly
earlier papers, a view was expressed that the salinity resulted from dissolution of
Zechstein salts by meteoric water circulating within the rock mass – see Samsonowicz (1928, 1954), Œwidziñski (1954), Kolago (1957, 1964), Dowgia³³o (1965a),
Kleczkowski (1966), Prochazka (1970), Zuber & Grabczak (1991), Krawiec
(1999a, b), Krawiec et al. (2000), Kwaterkiewicz et al. (1999, 2000). An essential
role of fossil seawater in the evolution of chemical composition of brines was postulated by Dowgia³³o (1965b, 1971, 1988), Paczyñski & Pa³ys (1970), Dowgia³³o
& Tongiorgi (1972), Kleczkowski (1979), Macioszczyk (1979), Weil (1981), and
Szpakiewicz (1983). Results of isotopic investigations of groundwater, first carried
out on samples from Poland by Dowgia³³o (1971), had a fundamental significance
for this hypothesis. Determinations of oxygen, hydrogen and sulphur stable isotope
ratios gave rise to a concept that saline waters in Mesozoic deposits of NW Poland
are of a mixed origin (fossil and meteoric waters) with a prevailing contribution of
connate sea water or sea water which infiltrated into consolideted rocks during
transgression periods (Dowgia³³o, 1971; Dowgia³³o & Tongiorgi, 1972; Ró¿kowski & Przew³ocki, 1974). The hypothesis that the main component of groundwater within in the Mesozoic is a mixture of fossil waters, and that only groundwaters within the Triassic are dominated by residual (evaporite-related) liquids, was
confirmed by the later work of Dowgia³³o (1988).
The geogenic salinity of waters within Cenozoic aquifers in the Polish Lowlands was initially seen as a result of dissolution of salt structures (Gumu³ka, 1964;
Prochazka, 1970). Subsequently, some authors pointed out to a possibility of upward migration of brines from Mesozoic rocks. Their chemical composition involved mixing of relict seawater with solutions formed by leaching of rock salt
(Macioszczyk et al., 1972, 1980; Macioszczyk, 1973, 1979, 1980; Gmurczyk,
1999). In the central Wielkopolska region (Western Poland), the development of
groundwater salinity in the Miocene aquifer is related to faults and tectonic depressions observed at the top of the Mesozoic sequence, whereas in the case of Pleistocene aquifers – to discharge zones along river valleys (Górski, 1989).
The process of saline water ascension from Mesozoic rocks might have been intensified by Pleistocene glacioisostatic movements (Michalski, 1985; Michalski &
Starnawska, 1987; Boniecka et al., 1988; Dowgia³³o et al., 1988a, 1990; Dowgia³³o
& Nowicki, 1991, 1997). In the Baltic coastal zone, water salinity in the Cenozoic
aquifers could originate from both the ascent of saline groundwater and ingressions
of Baltic seawater, as reported by Matkowska (1983), K³yza (1988), Kucharski &
Twarogowski (1993), Kachnic (1999), Krawiec (1999c), Kozerski & Kwaterkiewicz (1984, 1988, 1997), Zuber et al. (1988), Dowgia³³o et al. (1988b), Burzyñski
et al. (1999) and Kwaterkiewicz et al. (1999, 2000).
A synthetic characterisation of saline waters of Poland was also presented in a
10
D. KACZOR
number of atlases (Dowgia³³o et al., 1974; Turek, ed., 1977; Górecki, ed., 1995;
Bojarski, 1996; Paczyñski & P³ochniewski, 1996). Areas of increased salinity in
usable aquifers were shown in the Hydrogeological Map of Poland, scales
1:200,000 and 1:50,000 published by the Polish Geological Institute.
DATA SOURCES AND RESEARCH METHODS
The present research was based on both unpublished (archival) and published
data, as well as on author’s own investigations.
Unpublished data were collected from the following sources: Central Geological Archives in
Warsaw, archives of the Oil & Gas Drilling Company in Pi³a and Zielona Góra, BPiUBU “Balneoprojekt” in Warsaw, Geological Enterprise “Polgeol” in Warsaw, health resorts of Kamieñ Pomorski,
Ko³obrzeg and Po³czyn Zdrój, “Geotermia” Enterprises at Pyrzyce and Stargard Szczeciñski,
Szczecin Voivodship Office and HYDRO Bank Database (CBDH) in Warsaw. Archival materials
included primarily geological logs and results of chemical analyses of groundwater from deep
boreholes drilled by petroleum companies (68) and the Polish Geological Institute (22), from health
resort wells (13), geothermal drillings (6) and other water wells (7650). Some information was also
derived from geological and hydrogeological documentations and reports. Out of published reports,
the following were used: “Profile g³êbokich otworów wiertniczych Instytutu Geologicznego”
(Bojarski, 1972 – Kamieñ Pomorski IG-1; Bojarski, 1973 – Szczecin IG-1; Bojarski, 1975 – Wolin
IG-1; Bojarski, 1977a – Chociwel IG-1; Bojarski, 1977b – Koszalin IG-1; Bojarski, 1979 – Po³czyn
IG-1; Bojarski, 1986 – Ustronie IG-1). The research was also based on results of published chemical
analyses (Dowgia³³o, 1965a, 1969; Szmytówna, 1970; Jarocka, ed., 1976) and isotopic determinations (Dowgia³³o 1971; Dowgia³³o & Tiongiorgi 1972; Dowgia³³o, 1988; Zuber & Grabczak 1991;
Krawiec 1999a, b, 2005; Krawiec et al., 2000; Krawiec & Dulski, 2004).
The present author also used results of 42 chemical analyses of groundwater
samples collected by herself from Cenozoic deposits during mapping work on the
map sheets of Goleniów (191), Jenikowo (192) and Tucze (193) for purposes of the
Hydrogeological Map of Poland, scale 1:50,000. These analyses were carried out at
the Central Geological Laboratory of the Polish Geological Institute in Warsaw.
The range determinations included: pH, conductivity, alkalinity, HCO3, SO4, Cl,
NO3, NO2, F, HPO4, SiO2, NH4, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cr, Cu, Pb, Sr, Ba, Al
and B. Measurements of stable oxygen and hydrogen isotope ratios were also done
for 3 water samples collected from the Liassic aquifer of the geothermal wells GT-1
at Pyrzyce (2 samples) and GT-1 at Stargard Szczeciñski (1 sample), and for 1 sample from the Upper Cretaceous aquifer of a well at Pniewo. In addition, the ratios of
strontium isotopes 87Sr/86Sr were measured in 2 samples taken from the Liassic
aquifer in well GT-1 at Pyrzyce and well “Edward II” at Kamieñ Pomorski. Isotopic
research was conducted at the laboratories of the Institute of Geological Sciences
Polish Academy of Sciences.
The use of unpublished materials was preceded by the assessment of their reliability. As far as data from waters occurring within Mesozoic rock complexes are
concerned, the results of chemical analyses performed by petroleum companies
were treated with special caution. The process of data selection included also a verification carried out by Bojarski (1996) during construction of the “Hydrochemical
11
and hydrodynamic atlas of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic and ascensive salinity of
ground waters in Polish Lowlands”.
The assessment of reliability of water data for individual Cenozoic horizons relied on elimination of those results of analyses which could indicate that water salinity was caused either by Baltic seawater ingressions or by anthropogenic
pollution.
In eliminating analyses which could suggest the contamination by the Baltic
seawater of chemical composition of groundwaters in Cenozoic aquifers, depth to
the sampled aquifer and the Cl– ion concentration, were the main factors considered. The author used the same mode of interpretation of the origin of groundwater
salinization in coastal areas as that previously applied by Kwaterkiewicz et al.
(1999, 2000) in the nearby £eba region. According to that interpretation based on
isotopic determinations, it was possible to find out that the salinity of the first, unconfined, aquifer is a result of the Baltic seawater influence, whereas in the second
aquifer, confined by a several tens of centimetres thick till layer, saline groundwater comes from Mesozoic rocks. Following this assumption, the results of chemical
analyses of water samples collected from the unconfined aquifer were eliminated.
The only measurements used, were those of chloride concentration exceeding the
average obtained for the Baltic seawater, i.e. 4000 mg/dm3 (K³yza, 1988).
Particular attention was paid to the results of analyses of groundwater extracted
for public use in cities where the probability of anthropogenic pollution of groundwater is high. The basic indicator of anthropogenic origin of chlorides in groundwater is an increased concentration of sulphates and nitrogen compounds, as suggested by Macioszczyk (1991) and Górski (2001). Measurements showing the
amount of nitrates in water of >0.1 mg/dm3, and that of sulphates of >40 mg/dm3 in
confined aquifers, and 75 mg/dm3 in unconfined ones, were rejected.
Depths to the sampled aquifers and the local land use pattern were additional criteria taken into consideration. The assessment of variability of chloride concentrations combined with the depth to the aquifer (Kaczor, 2005) shows that the decrease
in Cl– concentrations to the amount below 30 mg/dm3 takes place at depths of about
25–35 m below the surface in the area considered. Increased concentrations of chlorides, recorded at greater depths, should rather be related to saline groundwater rise.
To illustrate chemical composition of saline groundwater within Mesozoic formations, 285 chemical analyses performed in the years 1881–2002 were used. The
collected data enabled identification of chemical types of the waters using the classification of Shchukarev-Priklonsky (Priklonsky & Laptev, 1955). This classification is based on the most commonly determined ions: Cl–, SO4–2, HCO3–, Na+, Ca2+
and Mg2+ found in amounts exceeding 20% meq, assumintg that the total sums of
these anions and cations equivalents equal 100% each. The concentrations of Na+
and K+ are presented jointly due to the usually small content of the K+ and the difficulty in its determinations. The present paper describes the spatial variability of the
groundwater chemical composition in 8 major Mesozoic aquifers, providing maps
for the best documented aquifers namely the Lower Triassic (see Fig. 6) and the
Lower Jurassic (see Fig. 7) ones.
12
D. KACZOR
One of the author’s aims was to identify the relationships between variations in
chemical composition of groundwater and the tectonics of the Permian–Mesozoic
structural complex. Thus, hydrochemical data are presented against the background of the fault pattern and salt tectonic structures, including also the poorly developed ones (see Fig. 3). The paper provides also characteristics of spatial and
temporal variations in the total water mineralization of Mesozoic aquifers. The vertical variability in total mineralization is presented on geological-hydrochemical
cross-sections (see Fig. 9–12) and in the graph showing the ratio between water
mineralization and depth (see Fig. 8). The temporal variability over the last 40 years
is illustrated in graphs showing the variation in total mineralization of brines from
productive wells in the Œwinoujœcie, Kamieñ Pomorski, Ko³obrzeg and Po³czyn
Zdrój health resorts (see Fig. 13).
An attempt to explain the origin of groundwater salinity of Mesozoic aquifers
was based mainly on analysis of genetic hydrochemical and isotopic indicators including the most commonly applied ratios: Br–:J–, Cl–:J–, Cl–:Br–, Ca2+:Sr2+ and
rNa+:rCl–. Results of four author’s own determinations of stable isotopes of oxygen
and hydrogen, and 20 couples of published determinations (Dowgia³³o 1971;
Dowgia³³o & Tiongiorgi 1972; Dowgia³³o 1988; Zuber & Grabczak 1991; Krawiec
1999a, b, 2005; Krawiec et al., 2000; Krawiec & Dulski, 2004) were also used (see
Tab. 2). The relations between d18O to d2H (see Fig. 18), d18O and total mineralization (see Fig. 19), and between d18O and the depth to the sampled aquifer (see Fig.
20) were analysed. An attempt was also made to calculate the 87Sr to 86Sr ratio in
groundwater, comparing the results with the average value of this ratio in modern
seawater and in Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks (see Figs 21, 22). The characterisation of groundwater salinity in Cenozoic deposits is based on 7747 measurements
of Cl– concentration, and on maps of Cl– concentration in groundwaters of Quaternary (see Fig. 24), and Neogene and Palaeogene aquifers (see Fig. 32). The variation in salinity displayed by groundwaters from Cenozoic layers was discussed
against the background of both the tectonic setting of Permian–Mesozoic formations and a scheme of groundwater circulation system in Cenozoic deposits
(Paczyñski, ed., 1993).
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
Sub-Mesozoic basement
The Zechstein salt-bearing deposits, which form the sub-Mesozoic basement,
are the most important formation involved in the discussion on the origin of
salinization of groundwater. The Zechstein section includes rocks of the Werra,
Stassfurt, Leine and Aller cyclothems (Marek & Pajchlowa, eds, 1997). The top of
the Zechstein strata lies at depths ranging from 500 m below sea level in the northern part of the Pomeranian Synclinorium to > 4000 m below sea level in the
Szczecin Synclinorium, rising over the Goleniów salt stock up to 690 m below sea
level (Jaskowiak-Schoeneichowa, ed., 1979). The Zechstein succession is repre-
13
sented by rock salt and potassium-magnesium salts with limestone, anhydrite, dolomite and clay intercalations.
Mesozoic formations
Lower Triassic deposits are represented by a mudstone-claystone-sandstone
complex. The Röth (Lower Triassic) section of the Szczecin Synclinorium includes
two evaporitic series composed of rock salt and anhydrites with intercalations of
dolomites, marls and clastics, 5 to 47 m thick (Jaskowiak-Schoeneichowa, ed.,
1979). In the Pomeranian Anticlinorium and Synclinorium, claystones with anhydritic concentrations are equivalent to the evaporitic series (Dadlez, ed., 1976;
Raczyñska, ed., 1987). Middle Triassic deposits are represented by marly limestones with clastic admixture, and by claystones and dolomites with abundant
anhydritic concentrations. These rocks occur throughout the whole region, except
for the area of well developed salt diapirs in the central part of the Szczecin
Synclinorium (Marek & Pajchlowa, eds, 1997). The Upper Triassic section consists of the Keuper sandstone-claystone deposits with plant remains, the lower gypsum beds (claystones with anhydrite, gypsum, dolomite and sandstone intercalations) and the upper gypsum beds (claystones with anhydrite and gypsum concentrations). The two latter are separated by sandstone-mudstone rocks of the “reed
sandstone” (Dadlez, ed., 1976; Jaskowiak-Schoeneichowa, ed., 1979; Raczyñska,
ed., 1987). The overlying Rhaetian rocks are represented largely by variegated
dolomitic claystones with conglomerate and sandstone intercalations and concentrations of coalified plant detritus.
The Lower Jurassic deposits are composed of quartz sandstones, most frequently fine-grained, dolomitic, sideritic and calcareous, interbedded by claystone
and mudstone containing plant remains, pyrite concretions and spherosiderites.
Thickness of the Liassic succession varies from 20 m in the Pomeranian Synclinorium to 1100 m in the Pomeranian Anticlinorium. Near Œwidwin, and close to the
Goleniów salt diapir, these rocks were removed by erosion (Dadlez, ed., 1976;
Jaskowiak-Schoeneichowa, ed., 1979; Raczyñska, ed., 1987). The Middle Jurassic
deposits are represented mainly by claystones and mud shales accompanied by
fine-grained sandstones with plant detritus, ranging in thickness from about 10 m to
over 500 m. The Upper Jurassic rocks are preserved in the Szczecin and Pomeranian synclinoria, in the eastern part of the Fore-Sudetic Monocline, along slopes of
the Pomeranian Anticlinorium, and in the Trzebiatów Syncline (see Fig. 1). They
consist of mudstones, marls, sandstones and claystones overlain by carbonates,
marls, mudstones, and fine-grained sandstones with glauconite, as well as by
dolomites, marls and limestones. An evaporitic series (Upper Portlandian) represented by gypsum and anhydrite beds is observed in the south-east of the Szczecin
Synclinorium and near Szczecinek.
The Cretaceous deposits occur in the Szczecin and Pomeranian synclinoria, the
Fore-Sudetic Monocline and in the Trzebiatów Syncline of the Pomeranian Anticlinorium (see Fig. 1). Lower Cretaceous complex is represented by marly
14
D. KACZOR
claystones and sandy-calcareous mudstones with bivalve shell detritus, overlain by
claystones with siderite intercalations and fine-grained sandstone. The Upper Cretaceous succession is composed of carbonate rocks (chalk, marls, limestones with
flints), gaizes, marly claystones and mudstones commonly containing glauconite
and quartz grains. Locally sandstones and sandy limestones occur.
The above-described lithology of the Mesozoic succession makes it possible to
draw some palaeohydrogeological conclusions concerning the area under consideration. Through most of the Mesozoic era, marine conditions prevailed over the
area under consideration. Thus, mainly seawater filled the sedimentary basins,
while intercalations of salt and sulphate rocks indicate periodical increases in water
salinity due to intense evaporation. Only during the Late Rhaetian and, periodically, during the Early and Middle Jurassic and the Early Cretaceous, non-marine
conditions prevailed over the area, while the marine basin was confined to the deepest zones of the Mid-Polish Trough (Marek & Pajchlowa, eds, 1997). Infiltration of
rain water, causing removal of connate seawater from the topmost part of the geological section, was possible only during relatively short periods.
Cenozoic deposits
The Palaeogene and Neogene sedimentary cover of the Mesozoic complex
shows numerous erosional hiatuses (see Figs 24, 32). The longest one covers northern part of the Pomeranian Synclinorium (Ciuk & Piwocki, 1988), shorter hiatuses
have been recognized over the Szczecin Synclinorium near Œwinoujœcie and over
salt-cored anticlines of Nowe Warpno, Szczecin, Gryfino and Choszczno (Kurzawa, 2000, 2003). The Palaeogene and Neogene deposits, 100 to 200 m thick, are
represented mostly by sands, gravels, muds and clays (Ciuk, 1972). The Lower
Oligocene (Rupelian) clays and claystones (“septarian clays”), and brackish siltstones corresponding to the “Toruñ clays” (Peryt & Piwocki, ed., 2004), which separate Cenozoic aquifers from the Mesozoic ones containing saline waters, are important in terms of salinity of Cenozoic waters caused by groundwater ascent. The
“septarian clays” are best developed over the Szczecin Synclinorium with the average thickness of 62 m, locally exceeding 100 m. In the east of the study area, there
occur the “Toruñ clays” (Czempiñ Formation), from several m. to over 50 m thick.
In the south-eastern area, groundwater occuring within Quaternary sediments is
protected by up to 50 m-thick Lower Pliocene clays and muds, the so-called “variegated clays”.
The Quaternary deposits are a continuous complex commonly less than 100 m
thick (maximum 237 m), decreasing to several tens of metres and even below 10 m
in the uplifted northern area of the Pomeranian Anticlinorium and over salt-cored
anticlines (Kurzawa, 2000). The Pleistocene succession includes 10 glacial till horizons representing the Narew, San, Nida, Odra, Warta and Vistula glaciations, and
accompanied by sandy-gravelly and muddy-clayey glaciofluvial and ice-dam lake
series (Mojski, 1984). The Holocene section consists mainly of organogenic depos-
15
its (peat and gyttja) and a several metres thick sandy-muddy series filling river
valleys and lake basins.
Tectonic setting
As far as the sub-Permian structural pattern is concerned, the study area is located within the West European Palaeozoic Platform, and its eastern extremes adjoin the marginal zone of the East European Precambrian Platform (Dadlez, 1974).
The area includes parts of the four second-order tectonic units: the Pomeranian and
Szczecin synclinoria, the Pomeranian Anticlinorium and the Fore-Sudetic Monocline along with the Gorzów Wielkopolski Block (Po¿aryski, ed., 1974). Boundary
between the Pomeranian Synclinorium and the Pomeranian Anticlinorium runs
along the Karlino-Szczecinek fault zone, between the Pomeranian Anticlinorium
and the Szczecin Synclinorium – along the Œwinoujœcie-Drawsko fault zone, and
between the Szczecin Synclinorium and the Fore-Sudetic Monocline – along the
Pyrzyce-Krzy¿ zone. The southern boundary of the Gorzów Wielkopolski Block
runs along the Lower Warta fault zone as identified on seismic profiles (Fig. 2).
The trends, nature and parameters of the major fault zones are inadequately
known. The most comprehensive characteristics refers to those sectors of faults
which separate the Pomeranian Anticlinorium from the Szczecin and Pomeranian
Synclinoria; this areas was well explored by seismic surveys. These faults cross the
Palaeozoic basement and the entire Mesozoic sequence, and their presence is manifested by varied relief and structural features of the top surface of the Mesozoic
complex. The scale of uplift or throw along the fault planes, defined by Dadlez
(1987) as the inversion dimension, is 1500–2000 m in the coastal Baltic Sea region,
and up to 3000 m in central and south-eastern parts of the Pomeranian Anticlinorium. The downfaulting and shifting of faulted blocks results in formation of a
system of mobile blocks.
The Mid-Polish Trough developed at the end of the Carboniferous between the
marginal zone of the East European Platform and the Variscan orogen. Its axial
zone approximately coincides with the present-day position of the Pomeranian
Anticlinorium (Marek & Pajchlowa, eds, 1997). Since the Zechstein, through the
Late Cretaceous, the Mid-Polish Trough was the main pathway for marine transgressions, being subject to load-induced subsidence due to increasing burial. During the Late Cretaceous, the trough began to invert, resulting in an uplift of the Pomeranian Anticlinorium. Intense erosional processes affected the Cretaceous and
Jurassic rocks during Early Tertiary times.
Typical tectonic features of the northern area of the Pomeranian Anticlinorium
are synsedimentary grabens developed during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic
(Dadlez, 1987). The graben-bounding faults show a near-meridional orientation
and are observed in the areas of Kamieñ Pomorski, Trzebiatów and Ko³obrzeg (Fig.
3). In this sector of the Mid-Polish Trough, the most intense faulting, reaching deep
basement, occurred during the Permian. During Late Cretaceous, these faults became reactivated (Krzywiec, 2000). The best surveyed Permian–Mesozoic faults
16
D. KACZOR
which follow the sub-Permian fracture system are those in the Pomeranian Anticlinorium (Dadlez, ed., 1976). Trends of younger faults only partly coincide with
sub-Permian discontinuity zones, being often independent of older faults. Also
fault throw directions have changed through time. Active faults transecting the Mesozoic formations could play a role of migration pathways for brines, although, in
some cases, they could also act as hydrodynamic barriers. Closer identification of
their significance for the development of salinization affecting groundwater in
Mesozoic aquifers is, however, difficult.
Block movements of the sub-Zechstein basement triggered processes of migration of Zechstein salt. These processes have continued since Late Triassic, resulting
in deformation of the overlying rock series (Dadlez, 1979). Salt movements gave
rise to the formation of salt structures, i.e. convex forms such as salt-cored anticlines and domes (Dadlez & Jaroszewski, 1994). The salt body may partly or completely pierce the overlying rocks, or occurs as swells without breaking the continuity of the overlying strata. When piercing the overburden, the salts form salt plugs
(salt diapirs) that include salt stocks (oval in plan view) and salt walls (elongated in
shape). Domed salt bodies which developed without piercing through the overburden are referred to as salt pillows (more or less isometric forms) or salt walls (anisometric in shape). In the area of the maximum thickness of Zechstein deposits,
within the so-called central zone of salt tectonics, there are salt walls and stocks partly piercing the Mesozoic overburden, mostly the Lower Triassic rocks (see Fig. 3).
These are salt plugs of: Grzêzno, Oœwino, Maszewo, Drawno, Goleniów, Wierzchos³awiec,
Nowogard, Ostrzyca, Dominikowo, Cz³opa and Szamotu³y, and small, close-to-faults salt intrusions
near Przytór, Miêdzyzdroje, Dargob¹dz and Kodr¹b. Poorly developed structures, represented by salt
walls and pillows not piercing Mesozoic rocks, occur in the so-called marginal zone of salt tectonics.
These are salt pillows of: Po³czyn, Barwice, Lotyñ, Œwidwin, Rokita, Resko, £obez, Drawsko, Pi³a,
and the salt walls of Krajenka and Miros³awiec-Trzcianka, located in the eastern marginal zone. Salt
pillows of Nowe Warpno, Krakówko, Maszewo, Gryfino, Pyrzyce, Marianowo, Recz, Choszczno,
Widuchowa, Banie, Lipiany, Karsk, Pe³czyce, Drezdenko, Chojna, Myœlibórz, Dêbno, Cedynia and
Czelin, and salt walls of P³awno and Szczecin were developed in the western marginal zone.
The movement of salt, largely belonging to the cyclothem Z2 (Leine), occurred
since the Late Triassic. The process was most intense during the Late Triassic and
Late Cretaceous times. A first generation of salt walls and pillows developed within
the central zone of salt tectonics during the Late Triassic. Subsequently, they
evolved into salt stocks and walls during the Late Cretaceous (Dadlez, 1979). Quaternary glacioisostatic processes associated with ice-sheet loading-deloading cycles (Liszkowski, 1993), reactivatied salt tectonic movements, as evidenced by
thickness reduction and stratigraphic hiatuses observed in the Pleistocene section
above salt-cored anticlines as compared with synclinal areas (Kurzawa, 2003).
HYDROGEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
Water-bearing Mesozoic deposits, represented largely by sandstones with
interbedding mudstone-claystone series, and by Middle Triassic, Jurassic and Cre-
17
taceous carbonate rocks, occur over most of the study area, except for the northern
and central parts of the Pomeranian Anticlinorium where Cretaceous and Middle to
Upper Jurassic deposits were removed by erosion. Near Œwidwin and Czaplinek,
there are also small areas lacking Lower Jurassic and Upper Triassic deposits. In the
west of the Fore-Sudetic Monocline, no Middle to Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous rocks occur. The Mesozoic rocks contain predominantly saline waters and
brines. Nonsaline (fresh) groundwaters have been found only in the northern part of
the Pomeranian Anticlinorium which is devoid of Palaeogene and Neogene deposits and covered only by a thin Pleistocene sequence. Depths to the nonsaline waters
range here between 300 and 500 m below surface, as for example near Œwidwin,
Szczecinek and Pi³a (Turek, ed., 1977). Of particular significance is the Liassic
aquifer being the major reservoir of thermal waters in the Polish Lowlands, with
geothermal gradients ranging from 1.5 to 5.5°C/100m (Górecki, ed., 1995). The
percentage contribution of thickness of water-bearing sandstone layers in the
Lower Jurassic section varies between 50 and 80%. Considerable resources of thermal waters are also stored in the Lower Cretaceous aquifer.
Water-bearing Cenozoic deposits are represented mainly by Miocene sands,
subordinately by Oligocene sands and Pleistocene glaciofluvial sands interbedded
by poorly permeable glacial tills. They are saturated with fresh waters recharging
usable aquifers. Only in areas of slow water exchange, these groundwaters are coloured and show increased mineralization and oxidability (Macioszczyk et al.,
1972; Górski, 1989). Groundwaters are confined, except of shallow aquifers, most
of them occurring in river valleys (Malinowski, ed., 1991).
Both regional and local groundwater systems may be observed in the study area.
A regional system consists of saline waters stored in Mesozoic deposits. It is recharged directly through infiltration of meteoric water in areas of aquifer outcrops
located in the Fore-Sudetic Monocline, the northern margin of the Holy Cross Mts,
the Suwa³ki-Mazury Elevation and the £eba Elevation (Bojarski & Sadurski, 2000;
Malicki & Szczepañski, 1991). Indirect recharge occurs by infiltration of water
through Cenozoic deposits. The variability in reduced groundwater heads of the
Lower Jurassic (Fig. 4) and the Lower Cretaceous aquifers (Fig. 5) suggests that
brines of the Mesozoic complex migrate very slowly northwards, towards the Baltic Sea. These groundwaters are confined and their head gradient ranges between
0.9x103 and 1.1x103 hPa/10m (Bojarski, 1996). The groundwater table in most of
the tested wells stabilizes within Cenozoic deposits above the top of the Mesozoic
rocks. In the wells Kamieñ Pomorski IG-1, Ustronie IG-1 (see Fig. 9), Huta Szklana
1 (see Fig. 12), “Edward II” in Kamieñ Pomorski, “Józef” in Dziwnówek,
“Anastazja” in Podczele (see Fig. 9), B-1 and B-2 in Ko³obrzeg, Jatki II, Goœcino
IG-1, Ko³obrzeg PN1, Jarkowo 1, Gorzów Wielkopolski IG-1, Marianowo 1 (see
Fig. 10) and Pi³a IG-1 (see Fig. 11), spontaneous outflow of brines was observed, or
even occurs at present. This indicates favourable conditions of their ascent towards
usable aquifers. Through close-to-faults and highly fractured zones, the brines migrate upwards, from Mesozoic into the Cenozoic aquifers, to be mixed with fresh
waters in the active circulation zone. Waters of this zone form local groundwater
18
Fig. 4.
1995)
D. KACZOR
Hydrodynamic field of the Lower Jurassic geothermal water reservoir (after Górecki, ed.,
systems including either particular aquifers or their groups. The degree of groundwater salinization within Cenozoic deposits due to the ascent of brines depends on
the distance travelled by saline solutions which undergo dilution within the groundwater reservoir. Therefore, the upward migration of brines does not every- where
lead to noticeable salinization of usable aquifers.
Flow directions of groundwaters within the Cenozoic complex of the study area
are controlled both by the position of the Odra and Warta river valleys and by the vicinity of the Baltic Sea coast – see Fig. 24 (Paczyñski, ed., 1993). In lower-order
groundwater reservoirs, these directions are related to the position of local recharge
and discharge zones. The Drawsko Lakeland is such a recharge area supplying
groundwater to the Cenozoic aquifers, where the highest recorded groundwater table altitude reaches 140 m above sea level (Paczyñski, ed., 1993). This is also an
area of deep infiltration of fresh waters into Mesozoic aquifers (Dowgia³³o, 1965a),
as evidenced by the Po³czyn 2 well extracting an almost fresh water from the Upper
Triassic aquifer at depths of 711–767 m below the surface (Krawiec & Dulski,
2004).
19
Fig. 5. Hydrodynamic field of the Lower Cretaceous geothermal water reservoir (after Górecki,
ed., 1995)
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GROUNDWATERS
IN MESOZOIC AQUIFERS
Composition of groundwaters occurring within Mesozoic aquifers is based on
the results of 285 chemical analyses. These waters are mostly of the Cl-Na, type although the Cl-Na-Ca water is dominant in the Triassic aquifer (Tab. 1). Only the
water analyses from the boreholes Przytór 1 and Sadlno 1 (Lower Triassic aquifer),
Cz³opa 3 and Dargob¹dz 2 (Lower Jurassic aquifer) revealed the presence of
Cl-Na-Mg type water with high Mg (>20 meq%). In Cretaceous aquifers, a local influence of fresh meteroric water infiltration is marked. It results in the formation of
Cl-HCO3-Na waters (Oœwino IG-1, Biesiekierz 1 and Rokita IG-1 boreholes). Saline groundwaters in Mesozoic aquifers are characterised by a high total mineralization reaching 328 g/dm3 (Objezierze IG-1 borehole – see Fig. 6). Their chemical
composition shows much similarity within both particular stratigraphic units and
major structural units within the Mesozoic complex (see Tab. 1). The most frequent
are Cl– anions with concentration ranging from 54.2 to 99.7 meq% (see Tab. 1). Bi-
20
D. KACZOR
Table 1
Chemical composition of saline groundwaters in Mesozoic aquifers
Aquifer
Chemical type Number
of
of
groundwater analyses
TDS
g/dm3
Iodine
Bromine
Abridged notation of chemical composition
concenconcentrameq %
tration
mg/dm3
mg/dm3
8
5.5 - 63.9
Cl74.7-99.1 SO40.7-6.1 HCO30.0-15.7
Na80.7-97.6 Ca1.2-10.1 Mg0.1-9.0
Upper
Cl-HCO3-CaCretaNa
ceous
1
3.8
Cl58.7 SO413.6 HCO326.8
Na40.2 Ca59.8
33.3
Cl-HCO3-Na
2
1.0 - 1.9
Cl54.2-77.7 SO40.1-3.4 HCO322.2-42.3
Na85.1-89.2 Ca5.7-7.1 Mg3.5-8.4
2.0
Lower
Cretaceous
Cl-Na
12
14.0 125.7
Cl92.2-99.2 SO40.2-5.8 HCO30.0-5.8
Na83.9-96.7 Ca0.6-8.5 Mg0.2-9.8
10.0 325.0
2.1 - 3.6
Upper
Jurassic
Cl-Na
12
4.7 - 104.4
Cl90.4-99.1 SO40.6-4.9 HCO30.2-8.5
Na74.6-96.7 Ca3.7-11.9 Mg2.0-15.4
7.9 - 106.6
3.9
Cl-Na
27
8.8 - 161.7
Cl84.8-99.5 SO40.0-6.2 HCO30.0-10.4
Na82.6-95.3 Ca3.8-13.2 Mg1.4-9.1
9.0 - 120.0 2.0 - 7.1
Cl-Mg
1
169.0
Cl91.5 SO47.7 HCO30.2
Na14.9 Ca2.3 Mg82.7
1492.0
Cl-Na
54
3.0 - 173.9
Cl84.7-99.4 SO40.2-7.2 HCO30.0-11.4
Na69.8-97.6 Ca1.5-13.1 Mg0.9-19.8
1.3 - 239.7
Cl-Na-Ca-Mg
1
148.0
Cl99.0 SO40.5 HCO30.1
Na48.8 Ca23.5 Mg27.7
729.4
Cl-Na-Mg
1
65.0
Cl94.0 SO42.9 HCO33.0
Na61.9 Ca6.9 Mg30.2
114.4
Cl-Mg-Na
1
112.0
Cl91.6 SO47.2 HCO30.4
Na21.4 Ca3.8 Mg74.8
879.1
Cl-Na
29
49.8 299.2
Cl85.4-99.7 SO40.4 -6.9 HCO30.0-8.5
Na63.7-97.6 Ca1.9-18.0 Mg0.8-17.8
39.9 479.5
2.2 10.7
Cl-Na-Ca
4
44.0 199.9
Cl97.8-98.9 SO40.8-1.5 HCO30.0-0.5
Na68.3-74.1 Ca21.2-23.7 Mg2.1-9.1
136.5 670.0
2.5
Cl-Na-Mg
1
170.9
Cl94.7 SO44.8 HCO30.3
Na71.2 Ca4.0 Mg24.5
466.2
Cl-Na
5
31.0 140.4
Cl96.9-98.7 SO41.1-2.2 HCO30.0-1.2
Na71.7-91.6 Ca6.9-18.0 Mg1.5-10.3
59.9 366.0
Cl-Na
2
88.8 - 96.7
Cl96.3-96.6 SO43.2-3.4 HCO30.1
Na78.2-79.5 Ca14.3-14.60 Mg5.5-7.1
193.0 233.0
Cl-Na-Ca
1
32.8
Cl98.8 SO40.4 HCO30.6
Na64.7 Ca20.4 Mg14.9
53.2
Cl-Na
Middle
Jurassic
Lower
Jurassic
Upper
Triassic
Middle
Triassic
3.0 - 532.8 0.5 - 1.5
0.316.0
2.7 - 3.1
21
carbonates and sulphates show a much smaller contribution, commonly below
1 meq%. Increased concentrations of bicarbonates above 20 meq% were recorded
only in several groundwater samples taken from Cretaceous deposits, and the maximum value recorded was 42.3 meq% (Oœwino IG-1 borehole). The highest amount
of sulphates – 526 meq/dm3 (18.5 meq%) – was found in the Lower Triassic aquifer
(Gozd 3 borehole). The most common cation Na+, is dominant in all aquifers. Its
share varies between 14.9 to 97.6 meq% (see Tab. 1). The calcium contribution is
smaller, ranging from several to a dozen or so meq% (1619 meq/dm3 in the Lower
Triassic aquifer – Huta Szklana 1 borehole). The share of Mg+2 is 0.2–30.2 meq%,
except for the Middle and Lower Jurassic aquifers where it amounts to 82.7 meq%
and to 74.2 meq%, respectively (the Dargob¹dz 2 borehole, see Tab. 1). Saline waters within the Mesozoic complex are characterised by high concentrations of
biophile elements such as bromine and iodine. The maximum bromine concentration reaches 2000 mg/dm3 (Po³czyn IG-1 borehole), the iodine concentration comes up to 17.0 mg/dm3 (Moracz IG-1 borehole). Both maxima were found in the
Lower Triassic aquifer (see Tab. 1). Chemical analyses of curative waters produced
by wells in health resorts provided also data on the concentrations of strontium
(39.0–285.0 mg/dm3), lithium (<0.5–12.5 mg/dm3), barium (<0.1–3.2 mg/dm3),
boron in the form of boric acid (12.0–64.0 mg/dm3), and silicon in the form of silicic
acid (3.9–21.4 mg/dm3). The chemical variability of brines within the Mesozoic
formations does not show any distinct relationship to the position of local tectonic
units, fault zones or salt tectonic structures, as displayed on the maps of chemical
composition of waters in the Lower Triassic (Fig. 6) and the Lower Jurassic formations (Fig. 7).
Relationship between the total mineralization of groundwaters within
Mesozoic aquifers and tectonics of the Permian–Mesozoic sequence
A distinct relationship between water mineralization and the pattern of tectonic
units is observed in the study area. The highest TDS values were found in the central part of the Szczecin Synclinorium, the lowest ones were noted in the Pomeranian Synclinorium and the Fore-Sudetic Monocline (see Figs 6, 7). The high water
mineralization in the central part of the Szczecin Synclinorium may be related to the
occurrence of salt diapirs partly piercing the Mesozoic strata. The Iñsko and
Wierzchos³awiec diapirs pierce through the Lower Triassic deposits, the Cz³opa,
Szamotu³y, Domikowo, Drawno, Ostrzyca and Nowogard diapirs – through the
Lower and Middle Triassic ones. Only the Oœwino and Grzêzno diapirs reach the
top of the Triassic strata, and the Goleniów salt stock cuts up also the Lower and
Middle Jurassic rocks (see Figs 3, 6, 7). During the rise of these structures, salt was
moving upwards, being in contact with waters present in the pierced rocks. Just at
that time, the Zechstein salts could have been leached out by the surrounding
groundwaters, in particular those in Triassic aquifers. For example, in the Cz³opa 1
borehole, groundwater sampled from Upper Triassic sediments which occur at
depths of 1062.4–1090 m below the surface and directly overlie Zechstein salts,
22
D. KACZOR
shows the mineralization of 58.6 g/dm3, while at a depth of 1436–1441 m below the
surface in the same aquifer – 298.4 g/dm3 (see Fig. 11). Such an increase in mineralization along a relatively short depth interval suggests the development of a mineralization aureole due to leaching of salts from the Cz³opa salt wall. Similar signs of
the Zechstein salts leaching can be inferred from brine analysis of the Wolin IG-1
borehole where, in the Lower Jurassic aquifer, the maximum water mineralization
of 173.9 g/dm3 (see Fig. 12) was recorded at a depth of 1240–1309 m below the surface. This borehole was drilled close to a small close-to-fault salt structure of
Miêdzyzdroje, within which the top of Zechstein salt occurs at the depth of 1460 m
below the surface, and is directly overlain by Upper Jurassic deposits. A distinct increase in water mineralization was also observed in brines from the Upper Jurassic
aquifer of the boreholes Grzêzno 5 (89 g/dm3), Oœwino IG-1 (96 g/dm3) and
Chociwel 3 (104.4 g/dm3) – see Fig. 10, drilled near the Grzêzno and Oœwino salt
diapirs (see Fig. 3). In the case of other salt structures considered, no representative
data are available. In areas of weakly developed salt walls and pillows, no distinct
increase in water mineralization has been observed. This is best pronounced in the
Lower Triassic aquifer which is in a direct contact with salts of these structures (see
Fig. 6). However, the lack of drillings above the salt walls and pillows does not allow to prove such relationship. Highly mineralized groundwater of 314 g/dm3 was
observed only near the P³awno salt wall (Huta Szklana 1 borehole), suggesting occurrence of salt dissolution (see Fig. 6). High mineralization values (>200 g/dm3)
were recorded also above the Drezdenko (Strzelce Krajeñskie IG-1 borehole),
Rokita (Rokita IG-1 and Moracz 1 boreholes) and Po³czyn salt pillows (Po³czyn
IG-1 borehole) – see Fig. 6.
Relationship between the mineralization of saline groundwaters in Mesozoic
aquifers and depth of their occurrence
Mineralization variability of waters within the Mesozoic complex, in connection with depth of their occurrence, was analysed taking into account 220 determinations displayed as points on a graph (Fig. 8). A regression line is determined by
the linear equation: M = 0.08H –2.4 (where M stands for mineralization, H – for the
depth to the sampled aquifer). This relationship is most apparent within the depth
interval of 800 to 1800 m below the surface within which the greatest number of
points is grouped close to the regression line. The increase in mineralization with
depth is less pronounced at depths less than 800 m below the surface, which may be
a result of meteoric water recharge. Similarly, the relationship is less pronounced at
depths below 1800 m below the surface. There are only few points situated near the
regression line, the other ones (those corresponding to samples collected mainly
from the Lower Triassic aquifer) are shifted to the right of the line. This can suggest
an increasing mineralization caused either by an admixture of strongly mineralized
residual liquids of the Zechstein basin (and, possibly, smaller, Triassic basin undergoing evaporation), or by a contact of these waters with Zechstein salts. The graph
(see Fig. 8) also shows the regression lines calculated by Dowgia³³o (1971) for
Fig. 8.
23
The relationship between groundwater mineralization and depth of occurrence
groundwaters in Mesozoic aqiufers of northern Poland, and by Weil (1981) for
mineralized groundwaters occurring within the Warsaw Trough. Comparison of
the curves indicates that the increase in mineralization of groundwaters in Mesozoic aquifers with depth is most distinctly expressed in north-western Poland. This
relation is also illustrated in hydrogeochemical cross-sections (Figs 9–12) showing
that water mineralization does not depend either on lithologic or stratigraphic fac-
24
D. KACZOR
tors. The contours of groundwater mineralization, corresponding to the values of
50, 100, 200 and 300 g/dm3, cross the boundaries of lithological complexes and
stratigraphic units. Examples of a distinct increase in mineralization with depth are
observed in the Ko³czewo 1, Ustronie IG-1 (see Fig. 9), Chociwel 3, Oœwino IG-1
(see Fig. 10), Chabowo 3, Cz³opa 3, Cz³opa 1 and Pi³a IG-1 boreholes (see Fig. 11).
The phenomenon of mineralization increasing with depth is typical of deep sedimentary basins (Rittenhouse et al., 1969). It is often explained by the process of
ultrafiltration which relies on preferential separation (retaining) of some ions,
which are contained in groundwater, by clay sediments acting as semipermeable
membranes (Berry, 1969; Dowgia³³o, 1971, Hanshaw & Coplen, 1973; Kharaka &
Berry, 1973; Graf, 1982; Philips & Bentley, 1987; Kharaka & Carothers, 1986;
Hem, 1989; Drever, 1997). The course of this process depends primarily on electrochemical properties of clay minerals, as well as on pressure and temperature within
the reservoir, in particular during compaction of sediments. Out of the ions contained in the brines investigated, Na+ and Cl– ions are the most susceptible ones to
be retained.
On the other hand, however, the effectiveness of ultrafiltration process and, first
of all, its ability to produce considerable volumes of brines, has been challenged by
some authors (Knauth & Beeunas, 1986; Egeberg & Aagard, 1989; Connolly et al.,
1990a; Fontes & Matray, 1993a; Hanor, 1994; Tijani, 2004). The main counterarguments against the significance of the ultrafiltration process are the lack of sufficiently high pressures, unusual in natural geological conditions (Knauth &
Beeunas, 1986; Tijani, 2004), and the lack of clay deposits in the lithologic profile
(Land & Prezbindowski, 1981). Nevertheless, high pressures occur within
compressional zones associated with tectonic activity. Such a compressional zone
existed at the end of the Mesozoic in north-western Poland, as evidenced both by
the development of inversion faults cutting the Permian–Mesozoic structural complex and its basement, and by the evolution of salt structures (Marek & Pajchlowa,
eds, 1997; Krzywiec, 2000). The ultrafiltration process in the area of interest could
have also been favoured by the lithological types of Mesozoic deposits represented
mainly by mudstone-claystone-sandstone complexes. Carbonate rocks are dominant only in the Middle Triassic, uppermost Upper Jurassic and Upper Cretaceous
sections.
Variability in time of saline groundwater mineralization
in Mesozoic aquifers
Data concerning the variability in time of the total groundwater mineralization,
and its relationship with the concentration of chlorides, originate from systematic
monitoring carried out during the period of 1959–2002 by the “Balneoprojekt” Enterprise on medicinal waters intakes: “Edward II” at Kamieñ Pomorski, “B-1” and
“Emilia” (No 6) at Ko³obrzeg, “Jantar” at Œwinoujœcie and Po³czyn IG-1 at Po³czyn
Zdrój. The analyses are shown in the form of graphs illustrating both variations in
mineralization and concentrations of Cl– ion as a function of time (Fig. 13).
25
Fig. 13. Temporal variability in total mineralization, and chloride ion concentration in brines from
boreholes: “Edward I”, “Edward II” (A), Po³czyn IG-1 (B), “Jantar“ (C), B-1 (D), and “Emilia“ (E)
26
D. KACZOR
The results of 6 analyses of brines from the Liassic aquifer sampled in the borehole “Edward I”, performed in 1881–1961 (Dowgia³³o, 1965a) were also taken into
consideration. During that period, an initial increase in the groundwater mineralization was observed. It could have been a result of extraction of saline groundwaters from the aquifer until a balance between the well’s production rate and inflow
of mineralized groundwaters has been established (Dowgia³³o, 1971). Since 1973,
investigations of groundwater from this aquifer were continued in the borehole
“Edward II”, which replaced the well “Edward I”, as may be seen on the graph (see
Fig. 13), mineralization values fluctuate between 35.7 and 33.5 g/dm3, showing no
clear increasing or decreasing trends. Small variations of the order of up to 1 g/dm3
in the years 1978, 1984 and 1987–1989 could also be a result of a higher water withdrawal rate. The Cl– concentration was also almost constant, ranging between 21.4
to 20.0 g/dm3, and its small variations correlate exactly with fluctuations in total
mineralization. The data show that the chemical composition of saline groundwaters from the Lower Jurassic aquifer exploited at Kamieñ Pomorski is constant, and
there is no indication of an increased inflow of fresh meteoric waters.
Observations of brines from the Upper Triassic aquifer sampled at the Po³czyn
IG-1 borehole in the Po³czyn Zdrój health resort, refer to investigations conducted
in the periods of 1966–1970, 1972–1975, 1983–1987, 1990–1992, 1994 and 1997.
The total mineralization and concentration of Cl– ion were nearly constant through
the whole production period (see Fig. 13), the first one varying between 76.6 g/dm3
(in 1985) and 74.0 g/dm3 (in 1973). Even the change in the production rate from 7
m3/h to 2.3 m3/h, after the well renovation in 1991 (Paczyñski & P³ochniewski,
1996), did not affect the chemical composition of extracted groundwater. Thus, it
can be assumed, that brines under consideration are well isolated from other aquifers, in particular from the overlying Upper Rhaetian one, where in the well
Po³czyn 2 at a depth of 711–770 m below the surface fresh groundwater with the
mineralization of 0.74 g/dm3 was found (Krawiec & Dulski, 2004). Water analyses
from the “Jantar” borehole (depth of inflow 227.3–237.3 m), drilled in the
Œwinoujœcie health resort, were carried out during the years 1936–1967, 1969–
1971, 1975 and 1992 (Jarocka, ed., 1976; Paczyñski & P³ochniewski, 1996). The
water occurs in a Lower Cretaceous aquifer. Before 1967, its total mineralization
was almost constant ranging from 34.3 to 35.0 g/dm3. After 1969, it increased to 42
g/dm3, but over the next years it did not change considerably, as evidenced by analyses carried out in the years 1975 and 1992 (see Fig. 13). A pronounced increase in
mineralization in 1969 might have been a result of an admixture of groundwater
coming from a new, deeper well “Teresa” (No VI), extracting water of a higher
mineralization from the lower lower parts of the aquifer. The concentration of Cl–
ion in the Lower Cretaceous aquifer changes proportionally to the total mineralization. It means that increased saline groundwater production from the Lower
Cretaceous aquifer, did not cause any inflow of fresh bicarbonate groundwater
from overlying aquifers.
Analyses of curative water from the wells “Emilia” (No 6) and “Barnim” (B-1)
were carried out systematically at Ko³obrzeg. The water comes from the Middle Ju-
27
rassic aquifer. During the first years of production (1964–1968), a slight decrease in
water mineralization was observed in the B-1 well. Since 1969, the TDS has not
changed significantly oscillating around 54 g/dm3 (see Fig. 13). In the years
1990–1993, small fluctuations in total mineralization were observed. They can be
explained by poor technical condition of the well which was about to be closed. The
changes in Cl– concentration were proportional to the total mineralization changes.
Only in 1971, there was a disproportional increase in concentration of chlorides in
relation to the TDS. This might be a result of an analytical error.
A decrease in mineralization from 59 to 54 g/dm3, which occurred during the period of 1964–1968, was interpreted by Dowgia³³o (1971) as caused by freshening of
groundwaters from the Liassic and Dogger aquifers. According to this author, the
freshening might have been propagated from the outcrops of Triassic rocks at the
sub-Cenozoic surface extending near Czaplinek. However, results of the later investigations conducted over the next 25 years did not show any decrease in mineralization which could indicate a freshening of groundwater during that period.
Results of chemical analyses of groundwater from the well “Emilia” were initially showing an increase followed by a decrease in total mineralization (see Fig.
13). The chemical composition was stable only in 1976. The concentration of chlorides in the water is proportional to the variability in total mineralization.
The above data, collected during several tens of years, show a constant chemical
composition of brines extracted from the Lower Cretaceous, Middle Jurassic,
Lower Jurassic and Upper Triassic aquifers in the health resorts considered. The total mineralization was changing noticeably only in the initial stages of brines production from the wells “Edward I” at Kamieñ Pomorski and B-1 and “Emilia” (no
6) at Ko³obrzeg. These changes can be related to disturbances within the aquifers,
caused by intense groundwater withdrawal and its constrained inflow into the well;
these disturbance events were followed by relatively long periods of redressed balance of water withdrawal rate and its chemical composition. The variations in water
TDS in the above-mentioned wells is generally proportional to the variations in Cl–
concentration. It means that the presented data cannot be a proof of modern infiltration of meteoric waters affecting the chemical composition of brines. Thus, the decrease in the total water mineralization observed in the B-1 well at Ko³obrzeg does
not seem to confirm the existence of a general saline water freshening process as
postulated by Dowgia³³o (1971).
ORIGIN OF GROUNDWATER SALINITY
WITHIN THE MESOZOIC COMPLEX
Hydrochemical indices
The method of comparing some ionic ratios in saline groundwaters with the
same average ratios typical of ocean water is widely considered to be a valuable tool
in determining the origin of groundwater components and of water itself. According to the commonly applied interpretation, these ratios, which are equal to, or
lower than those of modern seawater, are indicative of the marine origin of the
28
D. KACZOR
Fig. 14. Percentage contribution of measurements with values smaller than seawater average
groundwater. Certainly, ionic ratios cannot be conclusive for univocal determination of groundwater origin, especially in case of a complex palaeohydrogeological
history of a given area. Nevertheless, their interpretation allows in many cases to
throw some light on the history of water, especially within deep aquifers, deprived
of contact with meteoric water.
Cl–/J– and Br–/J– ratios. The Cl–/J– ratios, based on 61 chemical water analyses,
vary from 682 to 41433, lying much below the value of 3.8*105 which is typical of
seawater (Fig. 14). Br–/J– ratios, calculated from 60 water analyses, range between
29
1 and 633, and are considerably smaller than the value of 1300 which refers to the
ocean water (see Fig. 14). Low values of these indices in relation to the values typical of ocean waters are associated with high contents of iodine and bromine ions derived from accumulations of marine biomass which remains in reservoir sedimentary rocks (Rittenhouse, 1967; Dowgia³³o, 1969; Pich & Turek, 1972; Collins,
1975). These values reflect the marine origin of groundwater which remains in contact with organic matter undergoing decomposition. It can also indicate the presence of connate seawater preserved in Mesozoic deposits.
Cl–/Br– ratio. This is one of the most common indices used for identification of
the origin of waters and their chemical composition (White, 1965; Dowgia³³o,
1971; Rittenhouse, 1967; Bojarski, 1996; D¹browski, 1973; Carpenter, 1978; Connolly et al., 1990a; Zuber & Grabczak, 1991; Fontes & Matray, 1993a; Nativ, 1996;
Drever, 1997; Razowska, 1999; Branks et al., 2002; Ró¿kowski, 2002; Tijani,
2004). The significance of this index relies on the fact that its value is constant in
seawater until the moment when precipitation of halite begins. Moreover, the proportions between the two ions in seawater do not change, even after its dilution by
fresh infiltration water (Dowgia³³o, 1971; Fontes & Matray, 1993b). Due to particularly conservative mode of behaviour of Cl– and Br– ions in solution, processes occurring between water and their reservoir rocks usually do not change their concentrations (Fontes & Matray, 1993b). The exceptions are the dissolution of halite or
the alteration of organic matter trapped in rocks.
The Cl–/Br– ratios, calculated on the basis of 179 analyses, vary between 25.6 to
8477.0 showing considerable variations in particular Mesozoic aquifers (see Fig.
14). The calculated values suggest, generally, the marine origin of groundwater
within Triassic aquifers, and confirm, to a lesser extent, a dominant contribution of
fossil seawater within the Jurassic and Cretaceous aquifers. The predominance of
marine water in the Triassic aquifers is corroborated by the fact that the Cl–/Br– ratios are below 300, i.e. below the value characteristic of ocean water. This concerns
85% of samples from the Lower Triassic aquifer, 67% from the Middle Triassic
aquifer and 70% from the Upper Triassic aquifer (see Fig. 14).
Very low values of the Cl–/Br– ratio (below 200) were obtained from 43 analyses
(52%). This suggests the presence of an admixture of residual (mother) liquids in
groundwaters of the Triassic complex; these liquids could remain after the precipitation of Zechstein and, possibly, Triassic evaporites. Such residual liquids are
characterized by an especially high concentration of bromine and a low Cl–:Br– ratio (Sonnenfeld, 1984). The average concentration of bromine in seawater is 65
mg/dm3. It increases during the evaporation process up to 10 000 mg/dm3 (Collins,
1975). The concentration of bromine in groundwaters can also increase due to
recrystallization of halite (Land & Prezbindowski, 1981; Stoessell & Carpenter,
1986; Land & Macpherson, 1992). However, in strongly mineralized brines, bromine released from halite cannot significantly change their chemical composition
because the concentration of Br– in halite in the initial stage of its formation is
merely 65–75 ppm, and in the final stage – 200 ppm (Holser, 1979). The Cl–/Br– ratios in waters from the Triassic aquifers confirm the assumptions of Dowgia³³o
30
D. KACZOR
(1971, 1988) and Szpakiewicz (1983), who postulated that these waters are a
mixture of fossil seawater and residual liquids.
The chemical composition of brines in Triassic aquifers was also affected by the
dissolution of Zechstein and Triassic salts, as evidenced by high values of Cl–:Br–
ratio ranging from 341 to 8477 in waters sampled from the boreholes: Warnowo 1,
Wysoka Kamieñska 4, Dargob¹dz 1, Bia³ogard 5, Czaplinek IG-1, Obrzycko 2,
Strzelce Krajeñskie IG-1, Cz³opa 1, Chociwel 3, Pi³a IG-1, Brojce IG-1, Wierzchowo 3 and Wierzchowo 9. The Warnowo 1, Wysoka Kamieñska 4, Dargob¹dz 1
boreholes are close to salt stocks bordering on faults. The Cz³opa 1, Chociwel 3 and
Obrzycko 2 boreholes are situated near the Cz³opa, Oœwino and Szamotu³y salt
diapirs. The Strzelce Krajeñskie IG-1 and Czaplinek IG-1 boreholes are close to
salt pillows (see Fig. 3). All this suggests that salt in these structures was undergoing dissolution by groundwaters of the Triassic aquifers. High Cl–:Br– ratios
(1–853), typical of groundwater from the Pi³a IG-1, Brojce IG-1, Wierzchowo 3
and Wierzchowo 9 boreholes (see Fig. 3), might rather be related to leaching the
Upper Keuper saliferous complex close to the Midle Keuper “reed sandstone”
aquifers.
The Cl–:Br– ratios, based on 74 analyses of groundwater taken from Jurassic
aquifers, are somewhat ambiguous as far as their connection with fossil seawaters is
concerned. Only 23% of the total number of these ratios are lower than 300, being
the typical upper limit for seawater. The percentage contributions of such values
calculated for the Lower, Middle and Upper Jurassic aquifers are 23%, 18%, and
33%, respectively (see Fig. 14). 77% of the total number of Cl–/Br– ratios show values >300. These values are commonly interpreted as indicative of the presence of
groundwater whose chemical composition was determined by dissolution of salts
(Dowgia³³o, 1971; Sonnenfeld, 1984). However, groundwaters from the Jurassic
aquifers in the area are considered not to be in a direct contact with Zechstein salts,
so this interpretation cannot be accepted indiscriminately. The process of salt rocks
leaching could occur only in the case of the Goleniów, Grzêzno, Oœwino and
Miêdzyzdroje salt plugs piercing the Triassic sequence up to its top (see Fig. 3). The
high water salinity, related to leaching these structures, has been documented by
analyses of groundwater from the boreholes: Wolin IG-1 near the Miêdzyzdroje
salt diapir; Oœwino IG-1 and Chociwel 3 near the Oœwino diapir (see Fig. 10);
Grzêzno 5 over the Grzêzno salt plug (see Fig. 12). The Cl–/Br– ratios determined in
groundwater from these boreholes vary between 559 to 6687. Similarly, in groundwaters from the Cz³opa 1, Cz³opa 2 and Cz³opa 3 boreholes, drilled on the Cz³opa
salt diapir (see Fig. 11), the Cl–/Br– ratios range between 321 and 1744, also suggesting the influence of salt rock dissolution on the chemical composition of waters
within the Jurassic complexes.
In the remaining cases, high Cl–/Br– ratios cannot be unequivocally interpreted
as a result of the dominant contribution of palaeoinfiltration water to groundwater
in the Jurassic aquifers, either. Penetration of meteoric water into highly concentrated solutions of chemical composition corresponding to that of brines due to processes of water-rock interaction is commonly considered as little likely to occur
31
(Weil, 1981; Land & Prezbindowski, 1981. The increase in concentration of Cl–
ions in groundwaters within Jurassic aquifers (as compared to Br–) with relation to
primary seawater could have occurred as a result of the ultrafiltration process. During this process, an increase in concentration of halogens in water occurs according
to the following sequence: Cl–>Br–>J–>F– (Berry, 1969; Kharaka & Berry, 1973).
The Cl–:Br– ratios may also change due to the mixing of solutions from different,
hydraulically connected aquifers and of different chemical compositions (Fontes &
Matray, 1993a).
In groundwaters from Cretaceous aquifers, the Cl–/Br– ratios were calculated
basing on 23 analyses; only 6 of them supplied values <300. This may suggest the
presence of an admixture of fossil seawater. The insufficient number of analyses
done makes a correct interpretation impossible. However, it can be supposed that
74% of Cl–/Br– ratios determination results which are higher than 300 were due to
the ultrafiltration process, and not a result of Zechstein rock salt leaching. This suggestion is justified by the lack of any contact between the Cretaceous aquifers and
the salt masses. It is also worth noting that the Cl–/Br– ratios in groundwaters within
the Upper Cretaceous layers sampled from the Oœwino IG-1 and Biesiekierz 1 boreholes (see Fig. 3), where the presence of an admixture of infiltration bicarbonate
waters is clearly visible, range from 31 to 170, i.e. they fall within the interval
typical of fossil seawater.
Logarithms of concentrations of Cl– and Br–, calculated for the same set of analyses, were related to the seawater evaporation line (Figs 15–17) reflecting variations in concentration of these ions during an “ideal” evaporation process of ocean
water (Rittenhouse, 1967; Carpenter, 1978). The projection of points representing
analytical values in groundwaters from particular aquifers of the Mesozoic complex considered confirms the above interpretation concerning the origin of salinity
of these waters (see Figs 15–17). The largest number of points, corresponding to
samples of brines being the product of seawater evaporation, which are distributed
below the seawater evaporation line, comes from the Triassic complex (see Fig.
15). Values plotted below the seawater evaporation line, and to the right of the halite precipitation point, indicate the presence of residual (evaporite-related) liquids
that remained after crystallization of salts (Carpenter, 1978; Szpakiewicz, 1983;
Connolly et al., 1990a). They are typical of mainly Lower Triassic formation brines
from the Pomeranian Anticlinorium. A cluster of points below the seawater evaporation line, between the point corresponding to seawater and the point where halite
crystallization begins, suggests the presence of a mixture of residual (evaporite-related) liquids and waters of another origin, most likely fossil seawater. The two
points plotted far to the right can suggest an admixture of palaeoinfiltration
meteoric water.
The position of points situated above the evaporation line is considered to be indicative of the relationship between salinity and the halite dissolution (Carpenter,
1978; Szpakiewicz, 1983; Tijani, 2004). The highest enrichment in chlorides, as related to bromides, is observed in the Upper Triassic aquifer of the Szczecin
Synclinorium. This enrichment is supported by the above-described cases of disso-
32
D. KACZOR
Fig. 15. The relationship between log [Cl–] vs. log [Br–] of saline groundwaters in Triassic aquifers
Fig. 16. The relationship between log [Cl–] vs. log [Br–] of saline groundwaters in Jurassic aquifers
33
Fig. 17. The relationship between log [Cl–] vs. log [Br–] of saline groundwaters in Cretaceous
aquifers
lution of salt in well developed diapirs by groundwaters. The graphs illustrating the
relationship between logarithms of Cl– and Br– of groundwaters within the Jurassic
(see Fig. 16) and Cretaceous aquifers (see Fig. 17) show that the majority of points
are situated above the seawater evaporation line, generally indicating the salt leaching process (Carpenter, 1978; Szpakiewicz, 1983; Connolly et al., 1990a; Tijani,
2004). However, due to the lack of any contact of groundwaters collected from the
Jurassic and Cretaceous aquifers with Zechstein salts, it should be assumed that the
main reason for their salinity is a range of hydrochemical processes which have
taken place within the Upper Permian–Mesozoic system.
meqNa+/meqCl– ratio. Another index also frequently used for explanation of
the origin of groundwaters and their chemical composition is the meqNa+/meqCl–
ratio (Dowgia³³o, 1971; Bojarski, 1996; Land & Prezbindowski, 1981; Egeberg &
Aagaard, 1989; Connolly et al., 1990a; Fisher & Boles, 1990; Zuber & Grabczak,
1991; Davisson & Criss, 1996; Nativ, 1996; Tijani, 2004). It defines the degree of
alteration of groundwater’s chemical composition. The alteration consists in ion
exchange between sodium present in the solution and calcium which is a rock component. This process occurs under conditions of groundwater long-term isolation
from the zone of active water exchange, and it results in a decrease of Na+ concentration with a simultaneous increase in Ca2+ concentration in water in relation to its
other components. This process is manifested by a decrease in the meqNa+/ meqCl–
ratio. This decrease also occurs as a result of albitization of plagioclases and potassium feldspars (Land & Prezbindowski, 1981). According to Dowgia³³o (1971), a
decrease in meqNa–/meqCl– ratio with depth may indicate an increased residence
34
D. KACZOR
time of groundwaters but it can also suggest an increased contribution of connate
seawater to the chemical composition of groundwaters. The decrease in this ratio
with increasing depth to the aquifer is also typical of groundwaters within the Mesozoic formations considered in the present study (see Fig. 14). It means that the
chemical composition of groundwaters from deeper-seated aquifers was more
strongly altered. An increasing number of meqNa+/meqCl– ratios below 0.86 may
also be observed in these aquifers. This indicates a growing role of fossil seawater
in brines of the lower part of the Mesozoic structural complex. The predominance
of primary seawater is most distinctly accentuated by the chemical composition of
brines within Triassic aquifers, as evidenced by the fact that in 80% of 97 water
analyses, the meqNa+ /meqCl– ratios are below 0.86. In particular aquifers, the
percentages of such ratios are as follows: Lower Triassic – 90%, Middle Triassic –
75%, Upper Triassic – 56% (see Fig. 14).
Despite the existence of contacts of waters within the Triassic aquifers and
rock-salt no meqNa+/meqCl– ratio is close to 1, that is to the value commonly accepted as indicating the process of salt leaching by meteoric waters (Dowgia³³o,
1969; Eugster & Jones, 1979). Recognition of this process is here hindered by
ion-exchange reactions causing the decrease in Na+ concentration in the waters
considered.
The meqNa+ /meqCl– ratios in waters sampled from the Lower Jurassic aquifer
are less unambiguous, because for only 21% out of 59 analyses they were lower
than 0.86, suggesting a marine origin of these waters. The percentage contribution
of such values for the Lower Jurassic is 20%, for the Middle Jurassic – 27%, and for
the Upper Jurassic – 14% (see Fig. 14). For groundwaters in the Cretaceous strata,
only 4 of 28 analyses show the meqNa+/meqCl– ratio below 0.86, presumably indicating a still smaller contribution of fossil seawater (see Fig. 14).
The above-discussed meqNa+/meqCl– ratios reflect the variability in chemical
composition of groundwaters within the Mesozoic complex. Lower parts of this sequence contain groundwaters with a greater contribution of seawater. Their chemical compositions are altered as compared to those of modern ocean water (meqNa+/
meqCl– ratio is commonly <0.86). Towards the top parts of the Mesozoic sequence,
the amount of meteoric water increases and the meqNa+/meqCl– ratios are usually
between 0.86 and 1.79. Such values are typical of rainwater, probably indicating
the mixed nature of these waters. It should also be taken into consideration that increased meqNa+/meqCl– ratios can as well result either from the process of dissolution of alkali feldspars, mainly of albite and of smectite illitization occurring within
shales during diagenesis (Egeberg & Aagard, 1989). Both processes result in an
increase in concentration of sodium ion in groundwater.
Admixtures of meteoric water are most likely associated with palaeoinfiltration,
and not with recent precipitations. As much as 69% of the meqNa+/meqCl– ratios
are below 1, indicating an advanced chemical alteration of these groundwaters considerable isolated from the zone of active exchange. Only in groundwaters from the
Grzybowo 1, Brojce IG-1, Pi³a IG-1, Gorzów Wlkp. IG-1, Biesiekierz 2, Dunowo
1, Drzewiany 1, Miêdzychód IG-1, Koszalin IG-1, Gozd 1, Rokita IG-1, Szczecin
35
IG-1, Oœwino IG-1 and Miêdzychód IG-1 boreholes (see Fig. 3) these ratios exceed
1, suggesting the presence of younger meteoric water admixture.
Ca2+: Sr2+ ratio. The Ca2+:Sr2+ ratios calculated for 27 groundwater samples
vary from 0.5 to 194.2. In 77% of samples, these ratios are below 30.8, this value
being typical of ocean water. This confirms fairly unambiguously the presence of
fossil seawater in groundwaters of Mesozoic formations (see Fig. 14). An increased
concentration of strontium in the Triassic can also be related to the occurrence of residual liquids, since the concentrations of strontium in the form of SrSO4 develop at
the initial stages of halogenesis (Dowgia³³o, 1969). Enrichment of waters in strontium, indicated by Ca2+:Sr2+ ratios lower than 30.8, can also occur as a result of dissolution of gypsum and anhydrite by meteoric waters. However, the Upper Triassic
evaporitic complex in the study area is not in contact with such waters, which precludes this kind of strontium source. High concentrations of calcium and strontium
in groundwater, as compared to seawater, can also be the result of diagenetic processes, mainly the dolomitization of calcite (Stoessell & Moor, 1983; Fontes &
Matray, 1993a). Carbonate rocks are predominant in the Middle Triassic, Upper Jurassic and Upper Cretaceous sections of the Mesozoic rock sequence (JaskowiakSchoeneichowa, ed., 1979; Marek & Pajchlowa, eds, 1997).
Isotopic indicators of groundwater origin
The total number of oxygen and hydrogen isotopic analyses in groundwaters
considered available for the present study was 24 pairs. The results are shown in
Tab. 1.
On the graph (Fig. 18), the stable isotope composition of particular water samples content are plotted along the calculated line fulfilling the equation d2H=
6.8d18O–4.7, which runs below the Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL). This deviation indicates that waters considered are isotopically heavier than the recent me-
Fig. 18. The relationship between d18O and d2H vs. the global meteoric water line (GMWL)
36
D. KACZOR
Table 2
Deuterium and 18O in waters of the Mesozoic aquifers from north-western Poland
No
Borehole
1
2
1
Po³czyn IG-1
1a Po³czyn IG-1
Test
Date of interval
sam- depth m
pling
below
surface
3
5
18.07.
Upper
1968 1175.0 Triassic
1235.0
(Keuper)
11.09.
2000
Kamieñ Pomorski IG-1
(Miêdzywodzie)
19.07.
1968
2a
Kamieñ Pomorski IG-1
(Miêdzywodzie)
1997
3
Ko³obrzeg B-1
17.07.
1968
3a Ko³obrzeg B-1
1973
2
4
Stratigraphy
977.0 1035.0
84.5 101.5
Middle
Triassic
Middle
Jurassic
TDS d18O
(g/dm3) (‰)
6
7
8
Data
source(according to
references)
9
-3.3
-26
Dowgia³³o, 1971;
Dowgia³³o &
Tongiorgi, 1972
-3.7
-27.2
Krawiec & Dulski,
2004
-4.5
-33
74
Dowgia³³o, 1971
93.5
-4.8
55
-36.0 Krawiec, 1999 b
-5.4
-44
Dowgia³³o, 1971;
Dowgia³³o &
Tongiorgi, 1972
-5.3
-38
Dowgia³³o, 1988
-5.4
-49
Dowgia³³o, 1988
-50
Zuber & Grabczak,
1991
3b Ko³obrzeg B-1
1974
3c Ko³obrzeg B-1
1980
-6.7
3d Ko³obrzeg B-1
1997
-6.5
4
Kamieñ Pom "Edward I"
18.07.
1968
4a Kamieñ Pom "Edward I"
-49.0 Krawiec et al., 2000
-7.4
-56
Dowgia³³o, 1971;
Dowgia³³o &
Tongiorgi, 1972
1973
-7.0
-52
Dowgia³³o, 1988
-6.6
-47
Dowgia³³o, 1988
-8.2
-59
Zuber & Grabczak,
1991
-8.2
-58
Zuber & Grabczak,
1991
5
Kamieñ Pom. "Edward
II"
1973
5a
II"
1980
5b
II"
1985
5c
II"
1997
6
Dziwnówek "Józef"
1997
7
Œwinoujœcie 5 "Jantar "
1973
7a Œwinoujœcie 5 "Jantar "
1997
8
1973
Œwinoujœcie 6 "Teresa"
d2H
(‰)
Lower
Jurassic
364.0 400.0
718.5 790.0
Lower
Jurassic
Lower
Jurassic
240.0 Lower
270.0 Cretaceous
225.0 Lower
266.0 Cretaceous
38
35.5
-8.1
-61.5 Krawiec, 1999
65.9
-6.1
-50.0
42
-5.8
-8.6
45
-7.5
-44
Krawiec, 1999;
Krawiec et al., 2000
Dowgia³³o, 1988
-62.4 Krawiec et al., 2000
-58
Dowgia³³o, 1988
37
Table 2 continued
No
Borehole
1
2
Test
Date of interval
sam- depth m
pling
below
surface
Data source
(according to
references)
8
9
10.06.
2001 1498.0 15.08. 1620.0
2001
Lower
Jurassic
119.0
10 Stargard GT-1
12.04. 2428.0 2002 2670.0
Lower
Jurassic
120
-4.06 -30.77
11 Pniewy - water well
12.10.
2001
Upper
Cretaceous
1.9
-9.2 -66.01
ING PAN,
Warszawa, 2004
-9.4
D'Obyrn et al., 1997
9a Pyrzyce GT-1
35.0 81.0
-4.02 -31.84
-4.08 -31.99
12 Rainwater in NW Poland
13 Pi³a IG-1
1999
997.0 1022.0
Lower
Jurassic
7
d2H
(‰)
6
Pyrzyce GT-1
4
TDS d18O
(g/dm3) (‰)
5
9
3
Stratigraphy
6.5
-66
Dowgia³³o et al., in
press
-8.82 -62.4 Krawiec, 2005
teoric waters, and may contain the fossil seawater component. A similar function,
i.e. d2H=6.9d18O–4.5, was calculated by Dowgia³³o (1988) for chloride waters of
the Mesozoic complex in the Polish Lowlands, and interpreted as indication that we
have to do with a mixture of different subtypes of relict waters. On the basis of the
same determinations, Zuber & Grabczak (1991) claimed that the heavy component
is formed of meteoric waters infiltrating in periods in which the climate was warmer
than the present one.
The points representing groundwater samples from the geothermal wells at
Pyrzyce and Stargard Szczeciñski (points 9, 9a and 10 in Fig. 18), plot fairly close
to the 0 point corresponding to the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSM
OW). It may indicate that these groundwaters are fossil seawaters preserved in Liassic sediments. These high-temperature brines, however, might be one of the reasons of high 18O content in water due to isotope exchange between water and carbonate minerals. On the other hand, the points 1 and 1a, representing the brine at
Po³czyn Zdrój (Upper Triassic) are still closer to the VSMOW point, although the
temperature here is below 20°C.
At Pyrzyce, groundwater temperature at a depth of approximately 1600 m below the surface is 60°C, in Stargard Szczeciñski – 90°C at 2500 m. During the process of isotope fractionation, groundwater becomes enriched in heavier oxygen isotopes, while the concentration of deuterium remains constant (Dowgia³³o 1970;
Sheppard, 1986; Clark & Fritz, 1997; Drever 1997). The points representing d18O
values in groundwaters of Pyrzyce GT-1 and Stargard GT-1 boreholes are, however, distributed along the same line as the points characterising brines at low temperatures of about 10–13°C (see Fig. 18). It might suggest that groundwaters within
the Liassic complex show no signs of isotope fractionation.
38
D. KACZOR
Fig. 19. The relationship between d18O and mineralization of groundwater in Mesozoic aquifers
Point No 1 in Fig. 18 is situated very close to the GMWL and to the mean isotopic composition of recent meteoric water in NW-Poland (d’Obyrn et al., 1997). The
water sample taken at Pniewo from the Upper Cretaceous aquifer (depth: 31–80 m
below the surface) is representing water of meteoric origin circulating in the zone of
active exchange.
The depth-related increase in concentration of the heavy oxygen isotope 18O in
groundwaters, along with the increase in total mineralization, is illustrated in Fig.
19. The presence of this phenomenon in the Mesozoic sequence of the Polish Lowlands was described by Dowgia³³o (1971) who claimed that also an increase in contribution of connate waters and of marine waters which intruded into consolidated
sediments during transgression periods has been observed with increasing depth
and mineralization. This is also related to the decreasing influence of the meteoric
contribution. Such interpretation is supported by the results of subsequently published isotope determinations in waters taken from the boreholes: B-1 at Ko³obrzeg, “Edward II” at Kamieñ Pomorski (Dowgia³³o, 1988; Zuber & Grabczak,
1991; Krawiec, 1999b), Kamieñ Pomorski IG-1 and “Józef” at Dziwnówek (Krawiec, 1999b), “Jantar” at Œwinoujœcie (Krawiec et al., 2000), “Teresa” at Œwinoujœcie (Dowgia³³o, 1988), Pi³a IG-1 (Krawiec, 2005), as well as by measurements
carried out in the Pyrzyce GT-1 and Stargard GT-1 boreholes, and the Pniewo water
well (see Tab. 2). Only the results from the Po³czyn Zdrój brine (Nos 1 and 1a – see
Fig. 19) depart from the rule. In this case, the high d18O values do not correspond to
the highest total mineralization. This can be explained by the presence of residual
39
Fig. 20. The relationship between d18O and depth of the tested aquifer
liquids that remained in Keuper deposits after Triassic evaporation under a hot and
arid climate (Dowgia³³o, 1988).
The variability in isotopic composition of the analysed groundwaters versus
depth is illustrated in Fig. 20 which shows a distinct increase in the d18O values with
increasing depth to the tested aquifers. The lowest one (d18O = –9.2‰) was recorded in an above-mentioned groundwater sample from Pniewo. One of the highest values (d18O = –4.06 ‰) was found in the water from the Liassic at Stargard
Szczeciñski and Pyrzyce. It should be noted that d18O values, at Pyrzyce GT-1
(point No 9) and Stargard GT-1 (point No 10) boreholes, are almost identical while
the difference in depths to the tested aquifers amounts to nearly 1000 m (see Fig.
20). Therefore, it can be suggested, that the isotopic composition of groundwaters
within the Liassic aquifers had been established before such a great difference in
depths was reached, i.e. prior to the formation of the Chabowo salt anticline pierced
at its crest by the Pyrzyce GT-1 borehole, and of the Ina syncline where the Stargard
GT-1 borehole is located (see Fig. 10).
40
D. KACZOR
Fig. 21. 87Sr/86Sr ratio calculated for groundwater from the Liassic aquifer of the “Edward II” and
Pyrzyce GT-1 boreholes versus 87Sr/86Sr ratio (simplified graph) in Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks
after Veizer (1989)
An exception to the rule of increasing heavy isotopes content in groundwaters
along with increasing depth are the results obtained in the Keuper aquifer at depths
of 1175–1235 m below the surface at Po³czyn (points Nos 1 and 1a on Fig. 20). The
recorded d18O value is –3.3‰, although the depth to the tested aquifer is by ca 300
m smaller than that at Pyrzyce (points No 9 and 9a) and by about 1300 m smaller
than that at Stargard (point No 10). An explanation for this deviation can also be
sought in tectonic processes occurring after the isotopic composition of water
within the Keuper aquifer was ashieved. The Po³czyn IG-1 borehole was drilled in
the Pomeranian Anticlinorium, i.e. within the deepest zone of the Mid-Polish
Trough during Triassic times, subsequently uplifted at the end of the Cretaceous
(Dadlez, 2001). So, if we assume that the groundwaters, which are to-day stored
within the Keuper aquifer of the Po³czyn area, accumulated before the inversion of
the Mid-Polish Trough, then it is obvious that they were richer in heavy isotopes
than groundwaters within the Liassic aquifer of the Pyrzyce and Stargard areas, accumulated in areas lying close to the trough’s margins which were at greater altitudes at those times.
Determination of the 87Sr/86Sr ratios was done in brine samples taken from the
Liassic aquifer, in the boreholes “Edward II” at Kamieñ Pomorski, and Pyrzyce
GT-1. The 87Sr/86Sr ratio variations through geological time are an indicator providing information about reactions occurring between rock and water trapped in
sediments, about the groundwater flow system, and about the origin of groundwater
41
Fig. 22. 87Sr/86Sr ratio calculated for groundwater from the Liassic aquifer of the “Edward II” and
Pyrzyce GT-1 boreholes versus 87Sr/86Sr ratio (simplified graph) in seawater after Burke et al. (1982)
and its salinity (Chaudhuri, 1978; Connolly et al. 1990b; Clark & Fritz, 1997). The
87
Sr/86Sr values obtained from the Pyrzyce and Kamieñ Pomorski brines (0.708328
and 0.708867, respectively), were compared to the seawater ratio of 0.709 (Faure,
1986) and the value established by Veizer (1989) for Phanerozoic rocks of different
ages (Fig. 21). The results obtained are similar to the value typical of recent sea waters, but they are higher than the isotopic ratio value typical of Jurassic rocks. Furthermore, the results of both measurements were referred to the curve produced by
Burke et al. (1982), defining the 87Sr/86Sr isotopic ratio value in sea waters of different geological periods (Fig. 22). If the points corresponding to the results of measurements are away from the seawater time-curve, then it is interpreted as an indicator of chemical alteration of groundwater due to water-rock interaction (Chaudhuri,
1978; Connolly et al., 1990b). The ratio values for the Pyrzyce and Kamieñ
Pomorski brines are situated away from the curve. This can be interpreted as an evidence for a considerable modification of the chemical composition of brines within
the Jurassic complex due to chemical processes occurring between seawater and
reservoir rocks.
GROUNDWATER SALINITY IN CENOZOIC DEPOSITS
DUE TO BRINES ASCENT
Chemical composition of groundwater in Cenozoic aquifers
Groundwater of the Cenozoic aquifers is represented mostly by HCO3-Ca infiltration water of meteoric origin. Its chemical composition depends on the ground-
42
D. KACZOR
water circulation system, recharge and discharge conditions, lithology of water-bearing rocks, processes occurring in the vadose and saturation zones, and also
on anthropogenic factors. The Quaternary aquifers are the major usable ones in the
study area, while the Neogene and Palaeogene aquifers play such a role on a local
scale only. The unconfined aquifers which are recharged directly by precipitation are characterized by low mineralization ranging from 150 to 300 mg/dm3,
whereas groundwaters from confined aquifers isolated by aquitards show the mineralization amounting up to 500 mg/dm3 (Macioszczyk, 1989). The quality of water
in shallow aquifers is affected largely by anthropogenic pollution, resulting in an
increased content of chlorides, nitrogen compounds and sulphates (Górski, 2001).
Groundwaters within intertill and subtill deposits commonly contain considerable
concentrations of manganese and iron, ranging between 1 and 5 mgFe/dm3, and between 0.1 and 0.5 mgMn/dm3 (P³ochniewski, 1972). The chemical composition of
groundwaters is also influenced by hydrodynamic conditions, usually observed in
water catchments located in river and ice-marginal valleys. Changes in groundwater level contribute to an increase in total mineralization, concentrations of sulphates, iron, manganese, as well in the pH (B³aszczyk & Górski, 1977; Górski, 1981).
Out of Neogene and Palaeogene aquifers, the Miocene aquifer is best explored.
Its groundwater is characterized by a distinct brown colour and a high oxidability,
especially in areas where brown coal intercalations occur. Anomalously coloured
waters originate from reducing environments, and often show increased concentrations of chlorides exceeding 60 mg/dm3 (Macioszczyk, 1973). Salinity is a serious
problem in using groundwaters in this region, and has been a subject of research.
Surface manifestation of groundwater salinity
Examples of occurrence of saline groundwater in shallow aquifers were reported already in 19th century literature. The names of many localities containing
an element which is a German, Latin or Old-Slavonic equivalent to the word salt
(kol. hol) were related to the occurrence of saline waters (Deecke, 1898). An
axample is Ko³obrzeg (in German Kolberg) meaning a salt mountain. Another are
salt-loving plant sites, indicators of increased water salinity within shallow aquifers
(Fig. 23). Halophyte sites were reported from Stró¿ewo and Brodogóry near
Pyrzyce (Schmidt, 1840; Ascherson, 1859; Soenderop, 1911), to the south of
Heringsdorf on the Uznam (Usedom) island (Deecke, 1898), near Bia³ogard, in the
villages of Pêkanino and Kroszal (Hesemann, 1939), and also in Ko³obrzeg and its
vicinities (Preuss, 1910; Dibbelt, 1930). Piotrowska (1961, 1974), reporting on the
main salt-loving plant sites along the Baltic Sea coast, mentioned the localities of
Œwinoujœcie, Karsibór, Ognica, Przytór, £unowo, Dro¿kowe £¹ki, Dziwnów,
Chrz¹szczewo island, Mrze¿yno and Ko³obrzeg (see Fig. 23). Salt marsh flora
grows there in lowland and boggy areas, mainly close to big river mouths, where
backflow of the Baltic seawater may occur. The flora is also associated with natural
salt water springs characterised by the occurrence of Salicornietum patulae phytocoenosis. This species has been found, e.g., on Chrz¹szczewo island and in Ko³obrzeg. Natural changes in vegetation, related both to draining of meadows in order
43
Fig. 23. Salt-loving plant sites and natural brine outflows
to convert them to pastures, and to the development of urban agglomerations are
threats to salt-loving plants. These factors are believed to be responsible for the extinction of 10 halophyte species over the past century. To conserve the plants, a
strictly protected nature reserve was established at Ko³obrzeg in 1965. The reserve
includes 2 patches of salt marsh, 0.9 ha in area, situated on the right bank of the
Parsêta River, 1.7 km away from the sea (Bosiacka & Stêpieñ, 2001). Salt-loving
plant sites were also reported from the south-western part of the study area at
Stró¿ewo near Pyrzyce (Wiœniewski3, 1970) and at Staw near Myœlibórz (Bojanowski4, 1970).
3
4
Wiœniewski, J., 1970. Zagadnienie zasolenia wód podziemnych w okolicy Stró¿ewa – powiat
pyrzycki (The problem of groundwater salinity near Stró¿ewo, Pyrzyce district – in Polish). Praca
magisterska. Wydzia³ Geologii Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. (Typescript. Faculty of Geology
of Warsaw University).
Bojanowski, M., 1970. Zasolenie wód pierwszego poziomu wodonoœnego w miejscowoœci Staw,
województwo szczeciñskie. (Groundwater salinity of the shallowest aquifer in the locality od
Staw, Szczecin Voivodship – in Polish). Praca magisterska. Wydzia³ Geologii Uniwersytetu
Warszawskiego. (Typescript. Faculty of Geology of Warsaw University).
44
D. KACZOR
The groundwater salinity in Quaternary aquifers is evidenced by artesian flows
of saline water at Dobropole, Rekowo, Margowo, Szumi¹ca, Œwierzno, Sulikowo
and Œwiêtoujœæ near Kamieñ Pomorski (Gumprecht, 1846; Deecke, 1898) – see
Fig. 23. Outflows of saline water at Œwierzno, containing over 1000 mg/dm3 of
chloride ion, were reconfirmed by Dowgia³³o (1965a). The largest amount of data
on salinity in shallow groundwaters comes from the Ko³obrzeg area. The brines extracted in the health resort show the total mineralization of up to 54 g/dm3, recorded
in the “Edelquelle” spring on Salt Island (Karsten, 1846). The salinity of groundwater in the Quaternary aquifers was also reported from the Bia³ogard, Koszalin,
Œwinoujœcie, Wolin, Szczecin and Pyrzyce areas (Dowgia³³o, 1965a).
Groundwater of salinity zones in Cenozoic aquifers
A groundwater salinization zone within a Cenozoic aquifer is understood as a
group of wells with concentration of chloride ion in water exceeding 30 mg/dm3.
Such values have been recorded in 1988 analyses of groundwater in Quaternary
aquifers, out of the total number of 7103 water analyses available. The map (Fig.
24), however, presents only 754 wells because only the most representative wells
are shown in areas of high wells concentration.
The distribution of salinity zones is related to fault zones, salt tectonic structures
and to the lithological variability typical of the Cenozoic cover.
Groundwater salinity zones in Pleistocene aquifers above fault zones
Groundwater salinity is clearly evident in the northern part of the Pomeranian
Anticlinorium characterized by geological conditions favouring the ascent of
brines from Mesozoic deposits.
Due to erosional removal of Oligocene and Neogene aquitards, the strongly
faulted brine-bearing Mesozoic formations are in immediate contact with Quaternary aquifers.
Among the best known are occurrences of saline groundwater within the Quaternary cover of the Ko³obrzeg Anticline (Deecke, 1898; Dowgia³³o, 1965a, b;
Krawiec, 1999c). Up to 4 m deep hand drillings, made in this region, show that
chloride concentrations locally reach up to 15 g/dm3 (Dowgia³³o, 1965a). The present-day continuation of the process of brine ascent up to the surface is evidenced by
artesian flows of brines with the mineralization ranging between 45 and 54 g/dm3,
recorded in the springs No 18, 35 and 31, in the boreholes B-1 and B-2 in
Ko³obrzeg, and “Anastazja” in Podczele. The salinity of groundwater within Quaternary aquifers is now observed in the wells 16A (215.5 mgCl/dm3) and 16B
(500.6 mgCl/dm3) at the mineral water bottling plant “Per³a Ba³tyku”, extracting
groundwater from a Pleistocene aquifer from the depths of 40.5–64.0 m below the
surface (Fig. 25). The results of chemical analyses performed by the “Balneoprojekt” Enterprise in 2001–2002, also show an increased concentration in other elements such as bromine (0.7–1.7 mg/dm3), iodine (0.11–0.21 mg/dm3), strontium
(0.74–1.3 mg/dm3) and barium (0.04–0.06 mg/dm3), indicating the process of
45
Fig. 25. Hydrogeological cross-section I–I’
groundwater ascent. The results of measurements of stable oxygen and hydrogen
isotopes as well as of tritium in groundwater from the 16A well did also confirm this
process (Krawiec, 1999c).
High water salinity in the Quaternary aquifers is observed in wells located at
Bia³ogard and its environs transected by the Karlino-Szczecinek fault zone, which
separates the Pomeranian Anticlinorium from the Pomeranian Synclinorium, and
by a number of minor faults (Fig. 26). Increased concentrations of chloride ion were
also recorded in waters from a number of wells at K³opotowo, Œwiemino, Pêkanino,
Kozia Góra, Lubiechowo, Kowañcz, Karlino, Lulewice, Krukowo, Bia³ogard,
46
D. KACZOR
Fig. 26. An example of groundwater salinity zone in the Quaternary aquifer against the tectonics of
Permian–Mesozoic structural complex along the Karlino–Szczecinek fault zone
Robuñ, Dêbczyno, Rychowo, Ramlewo, Skoczów, Wrzosowo, Mierzyn, Nosówko, Koœciernica, Dargikowo, Moczy³ki, Czarnowêsy, Zagórze, Siñce and Karœcino. The highest concentration of chlorides (1900 mg/dm3) was measured in the
Lulewice borehole at a depth of 35 m below the surface. In Bia³ogard, high concentrations of chlorides (315–1320 mg/dm3) were recorded in 4 water wells at depths
of 20–28 m below the surface. An increase in chloride concentrations through time
is evidenced by monitoring of chemical composition of groundwater in the Pleistocene aquifer (water well at K³opotowo, depth 62 m below the surface) – see Fig. 26.
In 1966, the concentration of chlorides was here 10 mg/dm3, and subsequently increased to 230.4 mg/dm3 in 1999.
A distinct culmination of increased chloride concentrations is visible in Quaternary aquifers along the Œwinoujœcie – Drawsko fault zone which separates the
Pomeranian Anticlinorium from the Szczecin Synclinorium, particularly between
Nowogard and £obez (Fig. 27). In 55 water wells scattered throughout this area at:
Wiewiecko, Dalno, £obez, Dobieszewo, Lesiêcin, Gardno, Zajezierze, Runowo,
Stare Wêgorzyno, Wêgorzyno, Borkowo Wielkie, Rogowo, ¯elmowo, Dargomyœl, Rekowo, Mielno, Zwierzynek, Nowogard, Wierzbiêcin, Kulice, Jarchlino,
Osowo, Sienno Dolne, Mieszewo, Sielsko, Konarzewo, Œwierczewo, Karsk, Miêtno and Trzechel, chloride concentrations vary between 31 and 569 mg/dm3
(Kaczor, 2005). All of these wells supply groundwater from aquifers located at
depths below 20 m. The highest salinity was recorded in 1970–1978 in the already
abandoned well at Konarzewo near Nowogard, where the concentration of chloride
47
Permian–Mesozoic structural complex along the Œwinoujœcie–Drawsko fault zone
ions was 569 mg/dm3 in well No 2 screened at a depth of 28.5–32.0 m, and 322
mg/dm3 in well No 1. When considering the measurements which can indicate the
geogenic origin of groundwater salinity in the Quaternary aquifers, it is necessary
to quote once again the value of 110 mg/dm3 recorded at the depth of 120.5 m in
well No 1 located at the Lesiêcin collective farm (near £obez). An interesting case
is a distinct increase in concentration of chloride ion from 34 do 89.7 mg/dm3, recorded through the period of 1970–1999 in water from the Pleistocene aquifer at a
depth of 59 m in the well No 1 at Rogowo. The analysis carried out in 1999 has
shown a small concentration of nitrates (<0.1 mg/dm3) and of sulphates (8.2
mg/dm3) (Kaczor, 2005). In the area transected by the Rusinowo and Œwidwin
faults, between the towns of £obez and Œwidwin, no Oligocene cover is observed
which favours the ascent of brines (see Fig. 27). Increased concentrations of chlorides (31–165 mg/dm3, Tab. 3) were recorded in 18 water wells distributed
throughout this area.
Near Kamieñ Pomorski, there is a group of 34 wells in which waters have shown
an increased concentration of chlorides ranging between 30 and 2970 mg/dm3 (Fig.
28). The wells are situated at ¯ó³cino, Gostyniec, Kamieñ Pomorski (hospital,
health resort), Bêdzieszewo, Jarszewo, Jatki, Gostyñ, Œwiniec, Œwierzno, S³uchowo, Chomino, Sulikowo and Strze¿ewo. They extract groundwater from the
Pleistocene aquifer at a depth of 5–28 m below the surface. In fact, the strongly
faulted top of brine-bearing Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks occurs at depths of
48
D. KACZOR
Table 3
Water wells with increased concentrations of chloride ion, area between £obez
and Œwidwin
No
Well location
Chloride
concentration
(mg/dm3)
Depth to the
aquifer top
(m)
Year of
analysis
31.0
51.0
1977
1
Œwidwin – south district
2
Osowo – water supply system/well 1
165.0
33.0
1971
3
Osowo – water supply system/well 2
42.0
41.0
1976
4
Klêpnica – water supply system/well 1
67.0
35.0
1971
5
Worowo – water supply system/well 1A
49.0
35.0
1984
6
Worowo – water supply system/well 1
50.0
33.5
1970
7
Koszanowo – agriculture farm
52.5
39.0
1989
8
S³onowice – water supply system/well 2
55.0
41.0
1982
9
S³onowice – water supply system/well 1
68.0
46.0
1968
10
Mo³stowo – water supply system/well 2
64.0
30.0
1999
11
Be³czna – water supply system/well 2
36.0
32.3
1995
12
Poradz – water supply system/well 1
38.0
31.0
1974
13
Poradz – water supply system/well 2
35.0
32.0
1966
14
Karwowo – water supply system/well 1
60.0
109.0
1967
15
Dalno – water supply system/well 1
130.0
28.0
1965
16
Dalno – water supply system/well 2
99.0
24.0
1974
17
Rusinowo – water supply system/well 1
42.0
58.0
1980
18
Rusinowo – water supply system/well 2
35.0
58.0
1982
merely 10–40 m in this area. Moreover, the lack of the Palaeogene sealing deposits and the occurrence of artesian flows in the brine – producing wells (“Edward II”
at Kamieñ Pomorski, Jatki II and “Józef” at Dziwnówek), as well as natural brine
outflows reported from Œwierzno (Schulte, 1921), confirm the possibility of upward migration of saline groundwater towards the Quaternary aquifers. The maximum concentration of chlorides in the Quaternary aquifer of the Kamieñ Pomorski,
area amounting to 2970 mg/dm3, was recorded in 1972 in well No1 (state farm at
¯ó³cino) at a depth of 28.5 m below the surface. These hydrogeological conditions
cause frequent events of increasing groundwater salinity due to excessive water extraction. One of the examples is the H-1 well, a municipal water intake for the town
of Kamieñ Pomorski, extracting groundwater from the Quaternary aquifer at a
depth of 20 m below the surface, in which concentrations of chlorides increased
from 35 to 498 mg/dm3 during the period of 1987–1999. Stable oxygen and hydrogen isotope measurements carried out in 1997, confirmed the previous supposition
49
Permian–Mesozoic structural complex, Kamieñ Pomorski region
that water salinity in this well is associated with the ascent of groundwater
(Krawiec, 1999b). Another major problem is groundwater salinity in the “Wydrzany” municipal water well in Œwinoujœcie (Fig. 29). Since 1973, this well produced water from the Pleistocene aquifer situated at a depth of 20–30 m below the
surface. The water salinity was explained by intrusion of the Baltic seawaters
(Kucharski & Twarogowski, 1993), although there are also interpretations relating
the problem to the ascent of saline groundwaters from the Cretaceous (Matkowska,
1983; Kachnic, 1999).
Groundwater salinity zones in Pleistocene aquifers above salt structures
Clusters of wells supplying water with increased chloride concentration are
from Quaternary aquifers situated over 31 out of 49 salt anticlines considered,
namely, the Szczecin, Krakówko, Gryfino, Chabowo, Maszewo, Marianowo,
Choszczno, Recz, Dominikowo, £obez, Œwidwin, Grzêzna, Woœwino, Pi³a,
Cz³opa, Po³czyn, Barwice, Lotyñ, P³awno, Drezdenko, Pe³czyce, Karsk, Myœlibórz, Dêbno, Czelino, Widuchowa, Lipiany, Banie, Miêdzyzdroje, Dargob¹dz and
Kodr¹b anticlines (see Fig. 24). This indicates that salt anticline crests are areas of
intense ascent of saline groundwater towards these shallow aquifers. Areas situated
above the crests of most of these anticlines show most often the lack, or reduced
thickness of poorly permeable Palaeogene clays. The main confining strata, isolating the Quaternary aquifers from ascending brines, are Lower Oligocene (Rupelian) clays. In the south-eastern part of the studied area, such role can also be played
by the Lower Pliocene “variegated clays”. Anticlinal zones, uplifted as a result of
neotectonic movements, were subjected during Pleistocene to strong erosion and
glacial exaration which removed Palaeogene and Neogene deposits. Removal of
sealing clays, or their reduction in thickness, could result in the formation of
hydrogeological windows within which the upward migration of brines towards the
50
D. KACZOR
Fig. 29. Hydrogeological cross-section II–II’
Cenozoic aquifers occurred through a system of fractures. Vertical salt movements
resulted in the development of extensional zones on the uplifted anticline crests and
in the formation of fractures and local tectonic grabens (Kasiñski, 2004).
The groundwater salinity in the Quaternary aquifer above the Chabowo salt
anticline, caused by ascending brines, is evidenced by an increased concentration
of chlorides found in wells producing water from the aquifer located beneath a several metres-thick overburden of glacial tills. This cover isolater the aquifer from
anthropogenic pollution (Fig. 30), thus water salinizatioon is certainly geogenic.During test pumping of a well at ¯elis³awiec performed in 1968, groundwater
containing 420 mg/dm3 of chlorides was extracted from a depth of 95–100 m below
the surface. Increased concentrations of chlorides (ranging from 31 to 180 mg/dm3
– see Fig. 30), were also recorded in 35 wells at Gardno, Kartno, Stare Czarnowo,
Bêdgoszcz, Chabowo, Gi¿yn, Bielice, Linie, Ryszewko, ¯abów, Myœliborki,
Kosin, Okunica, Lubiatowo, Stary Przylep, Reñsko, Barnim, Wójcin and ¯elêcino.
Chloride determinations were done in groundwater collected from depths of 2 to 46
m below the surface. As for most of shallow wells, the discussed water chemical
51
Permian–Mesozoic structural complex, Chabowo salt anticline area
analyses are incomplete, it cannot be precluded that water salinity observed in several causes depends on anthropogenic factors. However, the possibility that salinity
in the shallow aquifers is related to the ascent of brines is indicated by the 19th and
20th century German literature reporting the presence of brines or highly saline waters in both hand-dug and drilled wells (Richter, 1926). Natural near-surface occurrences of saline water are also indicated by halophytic flora sites near the villages of
Stró¿ewo and Brody north of Pyrzyce (Schmidt, 1840; Soenderop, 1911; Wiœniewski, 19705) – see Fig. 23.
It can be supposed that some shallow occurrences of saline water, reported prior
to the beginning of the 20th century, disappeared due to intense land reclamation
lasting already more than 150 years.
Occurrence of hydrogeological windows and occurrence of relatively shallow
saline groundwater was reported from Upper Cretaceous deposits which directly
underly the Quaternary cover above the Szczecin salt anticline crest (Fig. 31). For
example, brine with mineralization of 48 g/dm3 (Linstow, 1913) was extracted
from the Cretaceous strata located at a depth of 92 m at the Szczecin Port, on the
£asztownia Island (Linstow, 1913). The occurrence of brines in this area was subsequently confirmed by the results of a 114 m-deep drilling performed in 1956, in
which a considerable increase in chloride concentration along with depth was observed (Dowgia³³o, 1965a). The concentration of chloride ion of water in Quater5
See footnote 3, p. 43
52
D. KACZOR
Fig. 31. Hydrogeological cross-section III–III’
nary deposits located at a depth of 86.9 m was 228 mg/dm3, and in Cretaceous rocks
at 100 m it increased to 2692 mg/dm3 (see Fig. 31).
Saline groundwater in Quaternary deposits was also reported from numerous
water wells drilled in the Szczecin city centre. Saline water (TDS=4.6 g/dm3, 2449
mgCl–/dm3) was also found in Pleistocene deposits at a depth of 89 m below the surface near the non-extant stock exchange building close to the City Hall (Deecke,
1906).
Further data on groundwater salinity in Szczecin are those concerning a well
drilled in 1959 for a dairy at the Jagielloñska street (aquifer depth amounting to
95–99.6 m below the surface). The groundwater TDS was here 4.2 g/dm3 and the
chloride concentration amounted to 2535.5 mg/dm3 (Dowgia³³o, 1965a). Groundwater salinity in the Pleistocene aquifer is also confirmed by chemical analyses of
water in the well No 4, drilled in 1968 and 1973, where the concentration of chlorides at the depth of 20.9–35.7 m was 105 mg/dm3. In another well drilled in 1971
for the “Delfin” Company at the Œciegienny street, 200 m away from well No 4, the
concentration of chloride ion in the Pleistocene aquifer at a depth of 84–95 m below
the surface was 282 mg/dm3 (see Fig. 31). In a well drilled in 1984 for PKP Railway
53
Hospital in Wyzwolenia street, the concentration of chlorides in the Quaternary
aquifer at a depth of 54–58 m below the surface was 318 mg/dm3, TDS=896
mg/dm3, whereas at a depth of 79 m, the Cl– concentration increased to 1400
mg/dm3 (Kaczor, 2005).
The high concentration of wells producing water with increased chloride concentration continue into areas of neighbouring synclines, spreading according to
groundwater flow directions (see Fig. 24). The presented scheme of groundwater
circulation within Cenozoic aquifers is based on the Hydrogeological Atlas of Poland, scale 1:500,000 (Paczyñski, ed., 1993). The brines migrating upward from
Mesozoic rocks are diluted by groundwater circulating in the upper part of the geological profile. The solutions formed in this way flow towards discharge zones, i.e.
towards river valleys. Therefore, the groundwater salinity zones do not always
coincide with the zones of ascending brines.
Groundwater salinity zones in Palaeogene and Neogene aquifers
The Palaeogene and Neogene aquifers have rarely been used in the study area as
a source of usable water. Scattered hydrogeological data provide knowledge about
water salinity only in single measuring points thereby giving no basis for characterizing the groundwater salinity over larger areas (Fig. 32).
Increased chloride concentrations were recorded in 132 water wells out of 644 wells sampled for
water analyses. These wells are situated at Borzys³aw, Barzkowice, Sulino, ¯elis³awiec, Koszewo,
Stobno, Pi³a, Chojna, Krzymów, Ch³opowo, Trzciñsko Zdrój, Otanów, Krzy¿ Wielkopolski, Ciszkowo, Brzozowo-Goraj, Stajkowo, Stare Dzieduszki, Œciechów, Górecko, Drezdenko, Ustronie
Morskie, Wieniatowo, £opienica, Skibno, Koszalin, Mielno, Unieœcie, Kleszcze, Mierzyn, Karlino,
Bia³ogard, Podwilcze, Nowe Ledzisko, Smolnica, Kamionka, Czarnków, Chodzie¿, Michor, Smolary, Klempicz, Stajkowo, Tarnówko, S³opanowo, Kobylniki, B¹blin, Goœciejewo, Or³owo, Boruchowo, Ruda, Garbatka, We³na, Ro¿nowice, Parkowo, S³onawy and Kowanówko (see Fig. 32), the
depths of wells ranging from 50 to 100 m below the surface.
The only zone of confirmed salinity, documented by a group of 30 wells producing water from the Miocene aquifer at depths of 48–177.2 m below the surface,
occurs around the Szamotu³y salt structure. Values of chloride concentrations
range there between 32.0 and 1835.0 mg/dm3. The upward migration of brines is related, most likely, to active faults transecting the salt structure up to the top of the
Mesozoic succession. An increased concentration of chlorides, recorded in wells
located to the south and west of this structure, may result from a flow of groundwater transporting chlorides from the zone of ascending brines towards the Warta
River valley. A similar groundwater ascent zone may also occur at the crest of the
RogoŸno salt anticline situated to the south-east of the Szamotu³y zone, just beyond
the limits of the area of interest (Kaczor, 2005).
The highest concentration of chlorides (4300–6600 mg/dm3) is observed in the
Palaeogene and Miocene aquifers in 6 water wells located at Mielno near Koszalin,
supplying water from the depths of 78.0–86.0 m below the surface (see Fig. 32).
Concentrations of chlorides in these waters are higher than the average for Baltic
seawater, amounting to 4000 mg/dm3 (K³yza, 1988). This indicates that groundwa-
54
D. KACZOR
Fig. 32. Distribution of increased chlorides concentration in Palaeogene and Neogene aquifers
55
ter salinity in the Mielno area is related to a region of ascending brines. Both numerous faults in this area, and the artesian flow of brine observed in the nearby Jamno
IG-3 borehole (see Fig. 32), confirm the occurrence of favourable conditions for
groundwater ascent. Examples of high chloride concentrations in the Mielno –
Unieœcie wells were also quoted by Dowgia³³o (1965a). In two wells, the Cl– concentrations in waters sampled at the depth 54.1 m and 75.0 m were 2005 mg/dm3,
and 2600 mg/dm3, respectively.
Assessment of risk to Major Groundwater Reservoirs and selected
groundwater intakes due to groundwater ascent-related salinity
20 Major Groundwater Reservoirs (MGR) numbered: 101–104, 118–120, 122,
123, 125–127, 134–139, 146 and 147, have been distinguished over the study area
(Kleczkowski, ed., 1990). They were identified mainly in Quaternary river-valley
sediments and in intermorainic deposits. The reservoirs numbered 126, 127, 134
and 146 include also Neogene and Palaeogene deposits. While delimiting the recharge areas for particular MGRs, the thickness and lithology of the aquifer’s overburden were considered the main protection criteria. Anthropogenic pollution was
assumed to be the largest threat to groundwater quality (Kleczkowski, ed., 1990).
According to the present author, also the saline water ascent is a potential hazard
to the quality of MGRs in many areas. This problem is illustrated in the map of vulnerability of Cenozoic aquifers to ascending saline waters (Fig. 33). The map
shows all the 20 above-listed MGRs along with the above-discussed zones of confirmed salinity and zones of potential salinization hazard to groundwater within Cenozoic aquifers. As the zones of potential hazard caused by salinization are considered both the areas situated above the crests of salt anticlines and above uplifted tectonic blocks, over which a confining layer of Palaeogene clays is thin or missing.
These blocks are often transected by a system of faults favouring the upward
migration of brines.
These geological conditions became a basis for identification of MGRs threatened by ascending saline groundwaters. These are, first of all, the following ones:
Uznam Island reservoir – 101, Wolin Island reservoir – 102 (threatened also by Baltic seawater
intrusions), Roœcino (103) and Dêbno (134) reservoirs, almost entirely situated within the zones of
confirmed groundwater salinity (see Fig. 33). In the coastal area, in zones of slow water exchange, the
salinity may also be associated with young fossil waters being the remnant of the Littorina Sea
(Kozerski & Kwaterkiewicz, 1984, 1988). Also parts of the MGRs. Nos 118, 119, 120, 125, 126, 127,
122, 123, 135, 137, 138, 146 and 139, are located in zones of potential and confirmed risk due to
salinization. The groundwater reservoirs of Sianowo (104), Dobiegniewo (136) and Warta River
valley (147) are situated out of the zones of confirmed and potential groundwater salinization,
showing no evidence of potential damage to water quality due to brines ascent from the Mesozoic
complex.
The threat from ascending saline waters to the largest groundwater intakes in the
region with the total well discharge exceeding >100 m3/h (see Fig. 33) was analysed
56
D. KACZOR
Fig. 33. Areas of salinization hazard to Cenozoic aquifers
57
in a similar way. The analysis was based on chloride concentration measurements
since the times of wells construction. Only in a few cases chemical analyses performed for the Hydrogeological Map of Poland, scale 1:50,000, were additionally
used. Water intakes, threatened by brine ascent, include 16 wells located in zones of
confirmed groundwater salinity. These are the following ones:
Œwinoujœcie (“Wydrzany”), Wolin, Ko³obrzeg (“Bogucino” and “Roœciêcino”), Koszalin, Gryfino, Nowe Czarnowo, Czarnków, Gryfice, Nowogard, Krzypnica, Stargard Szczeciñski, Wa³cz,
Trzebiatów, Goleniów and Choszczno. The groundwater intakes at Stargard Szczeciñski, Ko³obrzeg,
Gryfice, Trzebiatów, Gryfino, Wolin, Czarnków, Goleniów and Krzypnica are situated in discharge
zones. This favours the migration of chlorides from areas of confirmed brines ascent towards river
valleys where the water intakes are installed.
Low-vulnerability water intakes include wells at Police, Resko, Ko³baskowo,
Pilchowo, Œwierczewo and Pi³a, located in areas of potential salinization-related
risk. The wells which are free of risk are those situated at Dêbczyno, Drawno,
Œwidwin, Drezdenko, Barlinek and Wronki.
DISCUSSION
The interpretation of results of 285 chemical analyses from 113 boreholes allowed for more detailed characterization of the chemical composition of saline
groundwater from Mesozoic rocks, than those previously published (see Turek,
ed., 1977; Bojarski, 1996; Bojarski & Sadurski, 2000). The main difference is that
this paper presents a regional approach taking into consideration a detailed image
of the geological structure of the Permian–Mesozoic structural system, as well as
poorly developed salt structures, namely numerous salt pillows and walls.
The chemical composition of brines within the Mesozoic rocks shows much
similarity within particular stratigraphic units and within the main Permian and
Mesozoic structural units. According to the Shchukarev-Priklonsky classification
(Priklonsky & Laptev, 1955), applied in the present study, these are Cl-Na and
Cl-Na-Ca groundwaters. A high total mineralization (TDS) particularly typical of
the Buntsandstein sequence, reaches its maximum (328 g/dm3) in the Lower Triassic aquifer of the Objezierze IG-1 borehole (see Fig. 6).
The variability in total mineralization shows a certain relationship with the arrangement of tectonic units. The mineralization changes are similar in all Mesozoic
aquifers. The highest mineralization is observed in brines from the central part of
the Szczecin Synclinorium, the lowest TDS values are typical of brines occurring in
the Pomeranian Synclinorium and the Fore-Sudetic Monocline. An increase in
mineralization can be influenced by the presence of salt diapirs partly piercing Mesozoic rocks, which occur in the central area of the Szczecin Synclinorium. Salt
leaching during the rise of these structures could have contributed to an inrease in
groundwater mineralization marked above all in Triassic aquifers. Considerably
lower TDS values are observed in brines where salt structures (salt pillows and
walls) are poorly developed, although it should be emphasized that these areas are
explored by drilling to a lesser extent.
58
D. KACZOR
These observations confirm the conclusions of Dowgia³³o (1971) and Bojarski
(1996) about the relationship between the increase in mineralization and the occurrence of more developed salt diapirs partly piercing Mesozoic rocks, within which
salts are in contact with the aquifers. On the other hand, however, the central area of
the Szczecin Synclinorium is a region where the depth to the sub-Mesozoic basement is the greatest one within the whole north-west Poland; hence the observed increase in mineralization may be associated, at least in part, with an increase of depth
to the aquifers (see Fig. 8). The occurrence of this phenomenon in the Polish Lowlands, often interpreted as being the result of ultrafiltration, was previously reported by Dowgia³³o (1971), Weil (1981), Bojarski (1996), and Bojarski &
Sadurski (2000).
A synthesis of new hydrochemical data also allowed for a new insight into the
problem of progressive freshening of the groundwaters within Mesozoic aquifers
in north-west Poland, already discussed by Dowgia³³o (1971). In the light of
40-years monitoring, the total mineralization and concentration of chlorides in
brines extracted from Mesozoic aquifers by health resort wells at Œwinoujœcie,
Kamieñ Pomorski, Ko³obrzeg and Po³czyn Zdrój, is nearly constant (see Fig. 13),
while slight fluctuations are related to variations in the groundwater extraction rate.
Considering the origin of groundwater salinity in the Mesozoic formations it
should be borne in mind that sedimentary rocks composing these formations were
deposited mainly in marine environments. That is why the chemical composition of
groundwater of Mesozoic aquifers is referenced to seawater, the chemical composition of which has been almost identical since the Cambrian (Holser, 1979; Holland,
1984). A characteristic feature in the study area is the occurrence of Zechstein salts
underlying the Mesozoic succession. Therefore, the present paper includes an attempt at explaining the role of these two factors which determine the origin and
evolution of salinization of groundwaters within Mesozoic aquifers. The essential
contribution of fossil seawater to the chemical composition of groundwaters in Mesozoic aquifers is corroborated by the values of hydrochemical indices and results
of stable isotopes determination. However, the amount of the primary seawater
contribution, conspicuous by its altered chemical composition as compared to the
recent ocean water, seems to differ from one aquifer to another. The most unambiguous results were obtained for waters in Triassic aquifers. Most of Cl–/J–, Br–/J–,
Cl–/Br–, Ca2+/Sr2+ and meqNa+/meqCl– ratios suggest that these groundwaters originate from fossil seawater (see Fig. 14). The percentage of values of particular
indices, lower than those typical of seawater, is shown in Tab. 4.
A high concentration of bromine in brines of the Triassic aquifers, and thus the
low Cl–:Br– ratio, suggests the presence of an admixture of residual (evaporite-related) liquids which remained after the deposition of Zechstein and Triassic salt series. This interpretation is consistent with the conclusions presented by Dowgia³³o
(1971, 1988) and Szpakiewicz (1983) with regard to groundwaters in Mesozoic
aquifers of the Polish Lowlands.
Less unequivocal values were obtained from Jurassic aquifers. The Cl–/J–, Br–/J–
and Ca2+/Sr2+ ratios quite clearly suggest a marine origin of salinity in these
59
Table 4
Percentage contribution of hydrochemical indices lower than the seawater average
Ratios
Aquifer
– –
Cl :J
– –
Br :J
Cl–:Br–
Ca2+:Sr2+
rNa+:rCl–
%
Triassic
100
100
78
60
80
Jurassic
100
100
23
86
21
Cretaceous
100
100
26
100
14
groundwaters (see Fig. 14). The percentage contributions of all analyses, for which
these ratios are lower than typical seawater values, are shown in Tab. 4. For the
Cl–/Br– ratio, however, this percentage is only 23%, and for the meqNa+/meqCl– ratio only 21%. This can suggest the dominant role of water of another origin (for example of fossil meteoric water), in the formation process of chemical composition
of groundwaters within Jurassic rocks. It is even more probable that these values of
hydrochemical indices are due to alterations of the chemical composition as a result
of processes occurring within the Mesozoic sequence, such as ultrafiltration and
ion exchange. A high degree of alteration is commonly typical of groundwater isolated for a long time from the active circulation zone which is the case of water
within the Jurassic aquifers. Only locally, in the Pomeranian Anticlinorium, where
Jurassic formations are overlain by Cenozoic deposits only, a contact is possible
between infiltration waters and waters within the Jurassic aquifers. In this case, the
last-mentioned ones are characterized by both a low total mineralization and the
meqNa+/meqCl– ratio >1. The high meqNa+/meqCl– ratio may be due to diagenetic
processes affecting the concentration of Na+ ions in water. The illitization of
smectite in clays and dissolution of alkaline feldspars (albite) in sandstones, especially if there is a contribution of fresh meteoric water, are considered to be such
processes. The possibility that groundwaters in the Jurassic aquifers were subject to
considerable chemical alteration seems to be confirmed by the results of strontium
isotopes determinations. The 87Sr/86Sr ratios in the Pyrzyce and Kamieñ Pomorski
brines are close to the typical value of recent seawater (see Fig. 21), but are higher
than the value typical for Jurassic deposits. The distinct difference between
87
Sr/86Sr ratios in brines of the Jurassic aquifers and that established for the Jurassic
ocean also suggests considerable modification in chemical composition of groundwaters in Jurassic aquifers due to reactions occurring between the water and the
reservoir rocks (see Fig. 22).
Similarly ambiguous results were provided by hydrochemical indices in
groundwaters of the Cretaceous aquifers. The Cl–/J–, Br–/J– and Ca2+/Sr2+ ratios
clearly indicate the presence of fossil seawater. Instead, Cl–/Br– and meqNa+/
meqCl– ratios, confirm such interpretation only to a limited extent (see Fig. 14).
60
D. KACZOR
Merely 26% of the Cl–/Br– ratios yielded values lower than than that of seawater,
whereas for meqNa+/meqCl– ratios it was only 14% (see Tab. 4). By analogy to
groundwaters in Jurassic aquifers it may be supposed that the chemical composition of groundwaters in the Cretaceous aquifers, inferred from the ionic ratio values, was also determined mainly by hydrochemical processes such as ultrafiltration
and ion exchange. However, their position at the topmost parts of the Mesozoic succession indicates their higher sensibility to the influence of meteoric waters. This is
corroborated by the fact that 71% of TDS values are here below 35 g/dm3, i.e. they
are lower than the seawater average.
A considerable contribution of fossil seawater to the chemical composition of
groundwaters within the Mesozoic complex is also confirmed by stable oxygen and
hydrogen isotope determinations. After investigating brines from the boreholes
Po³czyn IG-1, “Jantar” in Œwinoujœcie, B-1 in Ko³obrzeg, “Edward I” and “Edward
II” in Kamieñ Pomorski and Kamieñ Pomorski IG-1, Dowgia³³o (1971) claimed
that these were mixed marine and meteoric waters, in which the contribution of fossil connate seawater increased with depth. The conclusion that fossil seawater is the
main component of the groundwaters in Mesozoic aquifers is inferred from isotopic
studies of brines from Lower Jurassic rocks sampled in the Pyrzyce GT-1 and
Stargard GT-1 geothermal boreholes (Dowgia³³o et al., in press). The content of
fossil seawater in the Pyrzyce and Stargard Szczeciñski thermal brines is markedly
higher than in waters described in previous papers (see Tab. 2). On the graph of the
18
O and 2H relationship, the results of measurements of the Pyrzyce and Stargard
Szczeciñski brines appear to be almost the closest ones to the VSMOW point (see
Fig. 18).
The results of isotopic investigations and the synthesis of chemical data confirm
the thesis about a considerable contribution of connate seawater to the chemical
composition of mineralized groundwaters of the Polish-German Lowlands, as presented, e.g., by Paczyñski & Pa³ys (1970), Dowgia³³o (1971, 1988), Weil (1981),
Szpakiewicz (1983), Lehmann (1974), Gerhardy & Hahn (1979) and Kleczkowski
(1979). However, the results of these investigations do not enable us to distinguish
unambiguously between individual types of seawaters which are the components
of the brines within Mesozoic aquifers (Dowgia³³o, 1971). No available information makes it possible to distinguish connate waters from waters intruding into sediments after their lithification. This is the more so as the chemical composition of
connate waters is subjected to considerable alterations, especially due to the processes of reduction of sulphates, oxidation of organic components, dolomitization
and albitization processes within the aquifers, as well as ion exchange and ultrafiltration (White, 1965; Dowgia³³o, 1971; Kharaka & Berry, 1973; Leœniak, 1989,
2005; Land & Prezbindowski, 1981; Liszkowska, 1985; Connolly et al., 1990a;
Sadurski, 1989; Tijani, 2004).
The waters considered contain a certain admixture of meteoric palaeoinfiltration waters, as evidenced by different distances of individual isotopic values from
the VSMOW point (see Fig. 18). These waters could penetrate into the reservoir
rocks in a large volume within uplifted tectonic blocks. Giving a description of the
61
effects of Jurassic and Late Cretaceous movements of block structures across the
Norwegian shelf, Egeberg & Aagaard (1989) expressed an opinion that a period of
several millions of years could be sufficient for the reservoir rocks, located within
areas of uplifted tectonic blocks, to have been completely filled with meteoric water. Based on this example, it might be presumed that a similar situation could have
occurred in the analysed segment of the Danish-Polish Trough. In particular, it
seems probable, taking into account periods when continental conditions prevailed,
namely the Late Rhaetian and partly also the Early Jurassic, and Early Cretaceous
(Marek & Pajchlowa, eds, 1997).
Another crucial difficulty in distinguishing particular genetic types of waters is
the fact that they mixed with one another as a result of migration triggered by increasing pressure within the geological system, related to tectonic movements. The
waters migrate over considerable distances towards low-pressure areas, through
active fault zones and permeable interlayer pathways (Land & Prezbindowski,
1994; Tijani, 2004). Thus, it can be supposed that the inversion of the Mid-Polish
Trough might have had an equally significant influence on the migration of
groundwaters in Mesozoic aquifers. Brines from the Kujawy region, typical of high
mineralization exceeding 300 g/dm3 and density of 1.211 g/cm3, as, e.g., those from
the vicinity of the Wapno salt diapir (Górski, 2000), could have also migrated into
this area.
An assumption concerning the dominant role of fossil meteoric waters played in
formation of recent chemical composition of groundwaters within Mesozoic rocks
of the Polish Lowlands, presented by Zuber & Grabczak (1991), was accepted by
Krawiec et al. (2000). It is based primarily on interpretation of oxygen and hydrogen isotope ratios. According to that interpretation, brines of the Mesozoic aquifers
were formed mainly by palaeoinfiltration of meteoric waters which penetrated into
the system during geological periods warmer than to-day’s climate. According to
these authors their salinity is principally related to the dissolution of Zechstein
salts. In the discussion on the origin of water salinity in Mesozoic aquifers one
should take into consideration that the dissolution of Zechstein salts could occur
only in case when there was a contact between unsaturated waters and salts. The
structure of the Permian–Mesozoic sequence (Dadlez, ed., 1976; Dadlez, 2001)
shows that there is a contact between salt bodies and groundwaters of Triassic aquifers. However, the values of hydrochemical indicators of these groundwaters are
closer to those characterizing seawater than to the values typical of solutions
formed as a result of salt dissolution. The results of stable oxygen and hydrogen
isotopes measurements in the groundwaters also indicate a larger contribution of
seawater.
The Cl–/Br– ratios in groundwaters from the Lower Triassic aquifer, which is in
the direct contact with Zechstein salts, commonly vary within the range of
100–200, thus the groundwaters neither exhibit any features of solutions formed
due to halite precipitation (the Cl–/Br– ratio in such waters is close to 69) nor are
they typical sea waters in which this ratio is close to 300. Therefore, it can be supposed that they are mixtures of different types of waters in which, e.g., an admixture
62
D. KACZOR
of residual liquids, containing considerable amounts of bromine, could reduce the
value of Cl–/Br– ratio in the case when Cl– ions were derived from salt dissolution
processes. Thus, low Cl–Br– ratios, typical of brines within the Triassic aquifers,
cannot give ground for precluding halite leaching.
The dissolution of salts could have occurred if brines of the Mesozoic aquifers
had taken an active part in groundwater circulation and had not reached the state of
saturation. In that situation, the leaching of salts could take place even at present.
However, the brines of the Mesozoic in the Polish Lowlands are isolated from the
active circulation zone, as indicated by the meqNa+/meq Cl– ratio which amounts to
less than 1 in almost all (93%) of the 230 waters analysed. The leaching of salts
might have occurred in the study area during Mesozoic times until there was no
chemical balance between the salts and the waters remaining in contact with them.
As far as groundwaters from the Jurassic aquifers are concerned, they are in direct
contact with Zechstein salts only in the vicinity of the Miêdzyzdroje, Goleniów,
Oœwino and Grzêzno salt structures partly piercing the aquifers. The the salt leaching process was confirmed only in cases of boreholes: Cz³opa 1, Cz³opa 2, Cz³opa
3, Warnowo 1, Wysoka Kamieñska 4, Dargob¹dz 1, Chociwel 3, Obrzycko 2,
Wolin IG-1, Oœwino IG-1 and Grzêzno 5. The confirming argument were the
Cl–/Br– ratios, ranging between 412 and 8477.
Unequal distribution across the area of data-providing boreholes, in particular
those piercing the top of the Zechstein sequence, and the lack of boreholes close to
some salt structures, make it difficult to carry out detailed investigations of the salt
dissolution process.
The lack of contemporary processes of salt dissolution in the area is also evidenced by the lack of reported events of subsidence observed at the surface, as indicated by Dowgia³³o (1971). Dissolution of rock-salts, resulting in decrease of their
volume, would cause deformation of the land surface. Such events have been reported from the neighbouring area extending between Poznañ and £ódŸ, where local depressions/grabens/troughs, filled with thick Palaeogene and Neogene deposits, have developed (Kasiñski, 2004).
Numerous examples of dissolution of salt diapirs during the Holocene are
known from northern Germany (Glander, 1970; Lehmann, 1974; Putscher, 1978).
The salt diapirs pierce through the Mesozoic rocks and are in contact with waters
circulating within the aquifer system. The leaching of the Sperenberg salt structure
near Berlin caused a considerable lowering of the area that resulted in damages to
buildings (Putscher, 1978).
There are no salt structures being at such a mature stage of development in the
study area. The only exception is the Goleniów salt diapir partly piercing Jurassic
deposits, whose salts were subjected to leaching processes during the Palaeogene,
as evidenced by anomalously large thickness (>400 m) of the overlying deposits of
this age (Jaskowiak-Schoeneichowa, ed., 1979). Within the is structure, the top of
Zechstein rocks occurs at a depth of approximately 700 m below the surface. For
the rest of the salt structures in the study area, the top of the Zechstein lies much
deeper, considerably deeper than the top of fresh groundwaters, with the maximum
63
depth of 700 m below the surface at Po³czyn Zdrój. Thus, it can be assumed that the
salinity of groundwaters in Cenozoic aquifers is not a result of the currently ongoing process of dissolution of salt bodies, but is primarily associated with the ascent
of fossil saline waters from the Mesozoic deposits. In this area, the process of brines
ascent is favoured by hydrodynamic conditions. The brines occur under high
piezometric pressure occasionally resulting in their artesian outflows at the surface.
The examples are the artesian outflows of brines reported from the boreholes:
Kamieñ Pomorski IG-1 (see Fig. 9), “Edward II” at Kamieñ Pomorski, Jatki II,
“Józef” at Dziwnówek (see Fig. 9), Grzybowo 1, Jarkowo 1, Marianowo 1 (see Fig.
10), Ustronie IG-1 (see Fig. 9), Jamno IG-3, Biesiekierz 1, Pi³a IG-1 (see Fig. 11),
B-1 and B-2 at Ko³obrzeg and “Anastazja” at Podczele (see Fig. 9).
An intense ascent of saline groundwater has been observed in the northern part
of the Pomeranian Anticlinorium, where there is no Oligocene clay cover, and
where Mesozoic rocks, cut by numerous faults, contain saline waters being in contact with waters from the Pleistocene aquifers. Clusters of measurement points representing the increased chloride concentrations in groundwaters of Pleistocene
aquifers occur along the Karlino-Szczecinek fault zone (between Ko³obrzeg and
Bia³ogard) – see Fig. 26, and the Œwinoujœcie – Drawsko fault zone (between
Nowogard and £obez) – see Fig. 27.
Areas of chloride concentrations exceeding 30 mg/dm3 within Cenozoic aquifers also occur above most of the salt anticlines considered, proving that those are
zones of an intense ascent of saline groundwaters from the Mesozoic complex. The
role of salt structures in the process of groundwater salinization relies primarily on
the fact that areas of reduced thickness of Oligocene (Rupelian) clays, isolating saline groundwaters from fresh groundwaters, occur above the crests of salt structures. Hydrogeological windows which developed in these areas are considered the
main zones of brine ascent in northern Germany (Glander, 1970; 1982; Grube,
2000; Grube et al., 2000). Migration of brines occurs through strongly fractured
Mesozoic rocks capping salt anticline crests. Such a hypothesis was postulated by
Macioszczyk (1980) and Dowgia³³o and Nowicki (1997) who considered the
strong fracturing of rocks above salt diapirs as the main reason for the development
of chloride anomalies in groundwaters of Oligocene and Miocene aquifers in the
Mazowsze Trough.
A relationship of groundwater salinity in the Miocene aquifer of the Central
Wielkopolska Region with the occurrence of faults in the sub-Cenozoic basement
was also postulated by Górski (1989). In the study area, however, zones of clusters
of points showing increased concentrations of chlorides in groundwater continue to
appear also in neighbouring syncline areas, as water is spreading concordantly to
the directions of groundwater flow. Groundwater, circulating in the upper parts of
the system, dilutes brines ascending from the Mesozoic basement, and the solutions
formed in this way flow towards discharge zones, i.e. towards river valleys. As a result of saline groundwaters occurrence in Cenozoic aquifers, this is frequently observed outside hydrogeological windows which are the main zones of brine ascent
from Mesozoic deposits.
64
D. KACZOR
CONCLUSIONS
1. The saline groundwaters of the Mesozoic in NW Poland are polygenetic.
Their main components are fossil (connate and intrusive) seawaters and fossil meteoric (infiltration) waters. Only locally, in the upper parts of the Mesozoic sequence, Quaternary infiltration waters provide a small contribution.
2. The origin of groundwater salinity in Mesozoic rocks is primarily related to
their marine origin and, to a lesser extent, to the dissolution of Zechstein and Triassic salts. The dissolution of Zechstein salts occurred in contact zones with groundwaters of the Mesozoic and lasted until there was no chemical balance between the
rock-salt and water. Recently, such a contact zone exists only at the base of the
Lower Triassic strata and around 16 salt structures piercing the Triassic aquifers.
Brines in Triassic aquifers contain an admixture of residual (evaporite-related) fluids associated with the Zechstein and Triassic salt series.
3. The chemical compostion of saline groundwaters within Mesozoic aquifers is
very similar within particular aquifers and particular Mesozoic tectonic units.
These groundwaters are represented mostly by the Cl-Na water type; Cl-Na-Mg
type waters are sporadic. Cl-Na-Ca water type is dominant only in the Lower Triassic aquifer. Among anions, chloride ions are predominant occurring in the amounts
of 54.2–99.7 meq%. Bicarbonates and sulphates make a considerably smaller contribution commonly below 1 meq%. Among cations, sodium predominates, with
the average content ranging between 14.9 and 97.6 meq%. The calcium content
varies between 0.2 to 33.3 meq%, that of magnesium – between 0.2 to 30.2 meq%.
Saline groundwaters of the Mesozoic complex are characterized by a considerable
content of trace elements with bromine and iodine predominating. The chemical
composition of groundwaters in Mesozoic rocks was subjected to significant
alterations in general due to water-rock interaction.
4. During a 40-year period of monitoring the health resort wells, the chemical
composition of brines in Mesozoic aquifers has not changed, as indicated by the almost constant total mineralization being proportional to the variability in the concentration of chloride ion.
5. The salinity of groundwaters in Cenozoic aquifers, commonly considered as
being the main problem regarding the usage of groundwaters along the coastal
zone, is distinctly marked also throughout a considerable part of NW Poland.
6. The salinization of groundwaters within the Cenozoic aquifers occurs due to
the ascent of saline waters from Mesozoic formations. This ascent occurs when
there is a high piezometric pressure of brines, causing their flow towards fresh water aquifers through a system of fractures. This process develops best within
hydrogeological windows formed in zones of reduced Oligocene clay cover above
the uplifted salt-cored anticlines and tectonic blocks.
7. The extent of groundwater salinity zones in Cenozoic aquifers is dependent
on flow directions of groundwaters which dilute the brines migrating upwards from
Mesozoic rocks. That is why the areas of confirmed salinity are not always coincident with the groundwater ascent zones.
65
8. Upward migration of brines is hazardous to groundwater quality of 4 out of 20
Major Groundwater Reservoirs identified across the study area: Usedom Island-101, Wolin Island-102, Roœcino-103, Dêbno-134. The remaining MGRs are
only slightly threatened because they coincide only in part with the areas of confirmed or supposed groundwater salinization. The total area of confirmed salinity is
8600 km2, i.e. 33% of the whole area of interest. The area of potential salinization
hazard, corresponding to areas where the Oligocene clay seal is reduced in thickness or completely lacking, is 4900 km2, i.e. 19% of the study area.
9. The water salinization is also hazardous to 16 major groundwater intakes
yielding more than of 100 m3/h of water.
Acknowledgements
This paper presents the results of doctoral research performed during the period of 2000–2004 at
the Post-Graduate Studies of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw. The author would like to
express cordial thanks to her promotor, Professor Jan Dowgia³³o, for pointing at this scientific
problem and for several years of scientific supervision. She also wishes to express her gratitude to all
persons and institutions helpful in collecting data and samples from wells. Special thanks are due to
Mgr B. Krawczyk from Ko³obrzeg, Ing. S. Kêpczyñski from Po³czyn Zdrój and Ing. S. Pietraszuk
from Kamieñ Pomorski for making archival data accessible, to M.Sc. ing. N. Maliszewski from
“Geotermia Pyrzyce” and M.Sc. ing. W. Gil from “Geotermia Stargard” for their help in brine
sampling from geothermal wells. Thanks are also due to Dr A. Porowski and Dr G. Zieliñski from the
Institute of Geological Sciences of the Polish Academy of Sciences for performing isotopic
investigations of water samples.
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Soko³owska, J. & Soko³owski, J., 1990. Mo¿liwoœci wykorzystania energii geotermalnej w Stargardzie Szczeciñskim (The possibilities of geothermal energy use in Stargard Szczeciñski – in
Polish). Technika Poszukiwañ. Geosynoptyka i Geotermia, 6/90: 1–18.
Soko³owski, J., 1997. Potencja³ energii geotermalnej i propozycje kierunków jego wykorzystania w
wybranych województwach Polski (Geothermal energy potential and the suggested directions of
its utilisation in some Polish voivodships – in Polish). Technika Poszukiwañ. Geosynoptyka i
Geotermia, 3/97: 7–20.
Soko³owski, J., Soko³owska, J. & G³adysz, M., 1993. Koncepcja wykorzystania energii geotermalnej
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D. KACZOR
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156–165.
Jamno
Ko³obrzeg Podczele
Anticline “Anastazja” Sarbinowo1 IG 3
Jamno IG 1
Ustronie
Grzybowo
1
IG
1
“B1,B2”
Kamieñ
A’
Trzebiatów DŸwirzyno1
Koszalin
Pomorski
Syncline
IG 1
Anticline
Polanów1
Manowo1 Wyszebórz1
Ko³obrzeg 1
Dziwnówek
17O00’
Biesiekierz1
Kamieñ
K³anino2 Polanów2
Wise³ka
Sadlno1
Karcino 1 Dygowo1
Ko³czewo1 Pom.IG1 “Józef”
Dunowo1
Syncline
Okunino1
Karsina1
Gorzys³aw14 Goœcino
Wolin IG 1
“Jantar”
B’
Gostyñ
IG
1
Gozd3
Warnowo
IG 1
Karlino1
“Teresa” Przytór1
Grzybnica IG 1
1
Gozd1
Jarkowo1
A
Chociwle2
“Edward II” Jatki II
Bia³ogard 5
D
Miastko1
Œwinoujœcie1
Rymañ1
Kodr¹b
Bobolice3
Drzewiany1
2
Œwinoujœcie4
Rec³aw
Bia³y Bór7
Samlino1
Brojce IG 1
PO Wierzchowo5
Przytór Dargob¹dz1
IG 1
Bobolice2
MEWierzchowo3
Rokita
Miêdzyzdroje
RA Wierzchowo9
Wysoka Kamieñska4
Bia³y Bór1
IG 1
Po³c
Wysoka Kamieñska1
NIA
zyn
Dargob¹dz
Bia³y
Bór3
N
Wysoka
Brzezie1
we o
No arpn
W
Goleniów
IG 1
Kr
Gr
yfi
no
dy
ni
a
elin
Cz
names of salt structures
confirmed faults
M
presumed faults
boundaries of major tectonic units
outlines of the Wise³ka and Trzebiatów Synclines
outlines of the Kamieñ Pomorski and Ko³obrzeg Anticlines
Borehole tested for aquifer of:
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
PC’
i³a
Cz³opa2
Cz³opa1
R
IU
M
Miêdzychód IG 1
A’ geological and hydrochemical cross-section line
O
N
LI
C
o
bn
Gorzów Wielkopolski
IG 1
Mê¿yk1
BL ON
OC
K) OC
LIN
E
ci
an
ka
³y
tu
mo
DE
TIC
M
(GO
RZ
ÓW
Cz³opa3
Huta
Szklana1
n
Czelin
jen
ko
Pi³a IG 1
-T
rz
a
Sz
Dê
-SU
zde
Strzelce ko
Krajeñskie IG 1
piercing Triassic deposits
N
SY
Dre
partly piercing Triassic deposits
IN
e
not piercing Triassic deposits
C
ZE
OR
E
Radêcin1
zy
c
Salt structures:
A
C
SZ
sk
pa
³o
lib Myœlibórz 1
ór
F
z
Cz
Kar
Dominikowo
P³awno1
Pe
³c
M
ir o
s³
aw
ie
c
z
zno
Permian-Mesozoic structural elements after Po¿aryski (ed.), 1974;
Dadlez (ed.), 1976, 1998; Dadlez, 1987, 1979
central zone of salt tectonics
Drawno
no
aw
P³
M
ys
ec
Kra
Explanations:
Lot
yñ
AN
o
Ch
os
zc
y
ian
Lip
Ce
sk
aw
o
b
owo
GT 2
GT 4
GT1
Pyrzyce
GT 3
B
52O35’
k
Iñs
R
IAN
LIN
OR
IU
TIC
LIN
OR
Czaplinek IG 1
IUM
Dr
GERMANY
o
w
Cha
AN
rw
ice
Drawno
Geo3
Drawno1
Chabowo 2
Ch
ojn
a
10 km
Czaplinek IG 2
Ba
Oœwino
Oœwino IG 1
Chabowo 1
e
Bani
a
ow
h
uc
id
W
PO
ME
R
Grzêzno
ze
ok
ów
as
M
ak
Grzêzno5
Grzêzno2
SY
NC
Po³czyn 2
Po³czyn IG 1
£o
be
z
Ostrzyca
Chociwel 3 Chociwel
Marianowo2
IG 1
Marianowo1 Ma
rian
GT 1
o
Stargard GT 2 Marianowo3 wo
Chabowo 3
0
o
Szczecin
C
ra
Od
sk
Nowogard
Wierzchos³awiec
Szczecin
IG 1
Re
Rokita
Goleniów
Œw
idw
in
A
IC SE
BALT
Obrzycko2
D’
Obrzycko1
Objezierze
IG 1
Fig. 3. Geological inventory sketch
Ustronie
IG 1
A
IC SE
T
L
A
B
Ko³obrzeg
DŸwirzyno1
186.0
206.0
Ko³obrzeg PN 1
Warnowo1 228.0
Œwinoujœcie
223.0
Moracz
IG 1
Sadlno1 124.0
Gorzys³aw14
264.0
Kamieñ
Pom.2
199.0
250.0
Brojce Rymañ1
IG 1
Œwidwin
250.0
Rokita
IG 1
Nowogard
Goleniów
Salt structures:
174.7
Gozd3
133.0
99.2
Bobolice3 167.0
Chociwle2
NIA
NS
YN
C
229.0
£obez
GERMANY
Polanów2
Grzybnica
201
Bia³ogard 5 IG 1
PO
ME
RA
Czaplinek IG 1
presumed faults
M
localities
Total mineralization intervals, in g/dm3:
Wa³cz
Drawno
Pyrzyce
Choszczno
PI£A
C
SZ
C
ZE
ra
Od
<1
150 - 200
1 -50
200 - 250
50 - 100
250 - 300
100 - 150
300 - 350
Water type (>20 % mval)
IN
Myœlibórz
GORZÓW WLKP.
Gorzów Wielkopolski IG 1
Cl-Na-Ca-Mg
Cl-Na-Ca
HCO3-Ca
Cl-Na-Mg. Cl-Mg-Na
M
280.0
O
LOC NOC
LIN
K)
E
Cl-Na
IU
Dêbno
Huta
Szklana
1
R
O
ÓW
B
314.0
N
LI
FOR
E-S
UD
(GO ETIC
RZ
M
253.0
C
N
SY
Strzelce
Krajeñskie
IG 1
109.0
O
52 35’
location and name of well tested
the number denotes total mineralization in g/dm3
174.7
Gozd 3
Dêbno
Stargard
Szczeciñski
10 km
confirmed faults
M
192.0
Gryfino
0
Miastko1
LIN
OR
IU
PO Po³czyn IG 1
ME
RA
NIA
174.0
Czaplinek IG 2
NA
Czaplinek IG 2
NT
ICL
INO
Czaplinek
RIU
SZCZECIN
Explanations:
Dadlez (ed.), 1976, 1998; Dadlez, 1987, 1979
70.4
104.2
115.9
253.0
160.0
Wysoka Kam.4
17O00’
Karsina1
Dunowo1
Jarkowo1
248.0
KOSZALIN
152.2-220.9
Karlino1
158.0
93.5
Jamno
IG 3
Dygowo1
Goœcino IG 1
248.0
Samlino1
189.0
Przytór1 162.0
Dargob¹dz1
198.0
255.0
Ko³czewo1
210.0
251.0
Jamno
IG 1
114.5
Obrzycko 2
Objezierze
IG 1
328.0
Fig. 6. Chemical composition of groundwaters from the Lower Triassic
aquifer against the background of the Permian-Mesozoic structural
complex
Podczele
“Anastazja”
A
IC SE
T
L
A
B
60.9 64.6
Ko³obrzeg
1.4
Dziwnówek
Ko³obrzegPN1
“Józef”
64.2
Œwinoujœcie1
173.9
101.0
0.5
Gostyñ IG 1
89.9
34.0 “Edward II”
10.0
Wolin
IG 1
0.4
68.9
Ustronie
KOSZALIN
IG 1 88.0
Biesiekierz1
Goœcino IG 1
Bia³ogard
16.0
92.3
Samlino1
77.2
extent of Lower Jurassic deposits (after Dadlez, 1979)
17O00’
PO
SY MER
N C AN
LIN IAN
OR
IUM
Obrzycko 2
location and name of well tested
the number denotes total mineralization in g/dm3
Dêbno
localities
148.0
Wierzchowo3
Rec³aw IG 1
109.0
for other explanations see Fig.6.
Brojce IG 1
80.4
Dargob¹dz2
69.7
Koszalin IG 1
33.6
Jarkowo1
Kamieñ
Jatki II
Pomorski
112.0
B-2
Jamno
IG 3
Bia³y Bór3
53.2-67.0
Rokita IG 1
Œwidwin
Goleniów
GERMANY
PO
ME
RA
Oœwino 99.6
IG 1
SZCZECIN
Po³czyn Zdrój
NIA
Chociwel 3
120.7-129.9
116.7-121.0
Marianowo 2
120.0 119.5
Chabowo 2
Marianowo 1
GT 1
125.7
Stargard GT 2 Marianowo
3
NT
ICL
INO
RIU
M
109.0
70.6-98.0
Drawno1
76.5-114.0
Chabowo 3
NA
GT 2 115.6-125.8
GT 4
GT1
Pyrzyce GT 3
Choszczno
6.9
97.0
ra
Od
Pi³a IG 1
94.0
P³awno1 Radêcin1
PI£A
72.0-94.6
106.0
Cz³opa2
Cz³opa1
Cz³opa3
65.0
97.9
TIC Strzelce
L
(GO
RZÓ INE Krajeñskie IG 1
W
B
LOC
K)
Dêbno
0
10 km
GORZÓW WLKP.
52 35’
64.4
Gorzów Wielkopolski IG 1
Mê¿yk1
M
55.8
Jeniniec 2
O
107.0
IU
IN R
C O
ZE IN
C CL
SZ YN
S
FOR
NOC
Myœlibórz M E-SU
DE
O
Fig. 7. Chemical composition of groundwaters from the Lower
Jurassic aquifer against the background of the Permian-Mesozoic
structural complex
E
NE WNW
ESE W
m a.s.l.
Ko³obrzeg Podczele
Karcino
Jamno
“Anastazja” Ustronie
Gorzys³aw
DŸwirzyno
Sarbinowo
IG
1
B2
1 1
IG 1
14 1
K1
2
1 IG 3
60.9
0
WNW
ESE SW
Warnowo
Gostyñ
Przytór
Kamieñ Pom.
Dziwnówek
Ko³czewo
Wolin
Œwinoujœcie
IG 1
“Józef” IG 1
1
1
1 J3 IG 1 K1 1 K2
m a.s.l.
0
K2
J2 J3
K1
J2
J1
J1
189.0
T3
T2
173.0
T3
T3
T1
3357m
J1
J2
783m
T1
J1
T1
250m
J2
69.7
T3
89.4
74.9
T2
T3
3280m 2819m
3182.4m 3100m
T2
2582m
3020m
3000m
255.6
-1000
T3
93.5
T1
T1
1609m
-2000
1985m
T1
210.0
3000m
2722m
10 km
0
3000m
-3000
3180.6m
Explanations:
4447m
Upper Jurassic
T3
Upper Triassic
P
Middle Triassic
50
Lower Triassic
Cenozoic
J3
K2
Upper Cretaceous
J2
Middle Jurassic
T2
K1
Lower Cretaceous
J1
Lower Jurassic
T1
- 4000
J2
T3
1696m
P
T1
114.4
K2
J1
T1
T3
T1
93.4
124.0
154.0
200
T2
P
J3
K2
33.6
J1
100
T2
J1
K2
J3
J2
350m
T3 72.2
89.9
T1
J1
50
124.4
288.2
64.6
J1
J3
101.5 88.8
P
-3000
J2
223.0 T2 252.0
T3
-2000
64.2
J1
J1
J1
101.0
-1000
J2
J2
Sadlno
K1 1 K2
faults confirmed
faults presumed
borehole
Permian
- 4000
Total mineralization isolines in g/dm3
60.9
Groundwater mineralization measured in g/dm3
Groundwater table
( stated; stabilised)
borehole located off the section
Fig. 9. Geological and hydrochemical cross-section A-A'
SSE
m a.s.l.
N W E SW
NE WSW
Marianowo
Pyrzyce Stargard Szcz.
Chociwel 3 Oœwino
GT 1 1 2 3
IG 1
GT3 GT 2
NNW S
Gorzów Wlkp.
IG 1
Myœlibórz 1
0
- 1000
30.0
30.7
64.4
K2 J J
3
2
K1
1.0
42.0
T3
- 2000
T2
280.0
3100.5m
- 4000
0
P
10 km
K1
1
J2
T2
300
- 3000
K1
50
100
J
125.8
115.6
200 1630m1640m
Myœlibórz
salt pillow
3893m
P
121.0
J3 119.5
125.7
J1
2045m
120.5
T1
2100m
104.4
T3
125.0
160.0
94.0
96.0
J3
99.6
Oœwino
2672m
199.9 salt
2917m
Marianowo 3361m diapir
salt pillow
T1
Chabowo
salt pillow
K1
NE
Bobolice 2 Okunino1
m a.s.l.
Wierzchowo Drzewiany
3
1
ENE SW
Czaplinek Po³czyn Zdrój
IG 1 2
IG 2
J1
T3
T2
J1
T3
770m
T2
174.1
T1
T1
5020m
P
K1 K
2
J3 J
J1
£obez
salt pillow
T2
228.8
283.3
2705m
Po³czyn
salt pillow
2
T3
J1
T3
T1
T2
50
100
200
K1
J3
J2
J 92.3
0
K1
23.2 37.0
T1
1873.2m
-2000
T1
2482m
T1
-3000
3304m
-4000
(For explanations see Fig.9)
Fig. 10. Geological and hydrochemical cross-section B-B'
-1000
1
NWN
m a.s.l.
Pyrzyce
GT1 GT4
Chabowo 3
ENE
m a.s.l.
S WSW
ESE W
Pi³a
IG1
Cz³opa
P³awno 1 Radêcin1
2
3 1
J2
J2
0
K2
K2
J3
- 1000
K1
50
J2
J2
76.5
114.0
- 2000
J1
124.3
117.6
J1
72.0
94.6 J
65.0
298.4
T3
106.0
T3
T3
J1
200
T1
T1
-1000
-2000
-4000
T2
P³awno
salt pillow
P
T1
T1
- 3000
Trzcianka
salt pillow
T1
3555m
Pi³a
salt pillow
3524m Cz³opa
salt diapir
IG 1
Drawno
Radêcin
1
1
K2
K1 J3
J1
T3
T1
1900m
P
2819.1m
3116.7m
40.0
77.2
200
0
3
5
J2
J1 112.0
J1
T3
Chociwel
Grzêzno
Huta
Szklana
Mê¿yk
1
1
Obrzycko
m a.s.l.
1
0
100
173.9
- 4000
SE
Dargob¹dz
Goleniów
Rec³aw
Wolin
IG 1
J
IG
1
3
2
IG 1
J3
J2
- 2000
S NW
T2
T1
-3000
299.2
5482m
SE N
NW
0
T3
10 km
0
- 1000
T2
Fig. 11. Geological and hydrochemical cross-section C-C'
m a.s.l.
6.9
T2
T3
T1
J1
50
100
200
300
3
J2 J3 K 1
T3
T2
Chabowo
salt pillow
- 4000
94.0
J1
T1
- 3000
J3
97.0
100
T3
140.4
J3
K1
K2
K1
K2
J2
P
Goleniów
salt
diapir
10 km
94.0
109.0
K1
104.4
1620m
125.0
160.0
63.9
J1 T3 Grzêzno
salt
T3
T2 diapir
199.9
2906.1m
T2
P
3361m
T1
T
1
3649m
J2
89.0
50
K2
K2
K1
J3
J2
J1
T3
T2
T1
P
T3
T2
T1
salt
diapir
Fig. 12. Geological and hydrochemical cross-section D-D'
75.0
100
200
300
2767.0m
3228.2m Drawno
K2
P³awno
salt pillow
125.7
J1
63.5
K1
J3
J2
T3
-1000
-2000
T2
314.0
T1
-3000
3129.0m
P
4434.0m
4381.7m
-4000
Mielno
I’
I
Ko³obrzeg
A
IC SE
T
L
A
B
17O00’
KOSZALIN
Mrze¿yno
Explanations:
Trzebiatów
II’
Kamieñ
Pomorski
w
raz
Bia³ogard
Œwinoujœcie
ep
Wi
Pad
e
Dêbczyno
II
Salt structures:
Gryfice
Szczecin
Lagoon
Dadlez (ed.), 1976, 1998; Dadlez, 1987, 1979
Pa
rsê
ta
Resko
Œwidwin
Rega
Po³czyn
Zdrój
flow directions within Cenozoic aquifers (after Paczyñski - ed., 1993)
Nowogard
GERMANY
Police
Szczecinek
£obez
Goleniów
faults confirmed
faults presumed
Czaplinek
III’
surface watersheds (after Czarnecka - ed., 1987):
SZCZECIN
first order
Gw
da
III
Stargard Szczeciñski
chlorides concentration in Pleistocene aquifers >30 mg/dm3
Kalisz Pomorski
area devoid of Palaeogene and Neogene deposits
(after Ciuk & Piwocki, 1988)
Gryfino
Ina
Wa³cz
Choszczno
Drawno
second order
I
Tuczno
I’
hydrogeological cross-section line
PI£A
Pyrzyce
a
Tyw
a
Draw
P³onia
Rurz
yca
Noteæ
Chojna
Myœlibórz
Strzelce
Krajeñskie
dr
O
0
10 km
52O35’
Dêbno
teæ
Czarnków
No
a
œla
My
GORZÓW
WLK.
Warta
Ryczywó³
Warta
Wronki
Fig. 24. Distribution of increased chlorides concentrations in Quaternary aquifers

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