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ISSN 1731-0652
COMMITTEE FOR REHABILITATION, PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIEN­CES
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SPORT KINETICS – IASK
AN­TRO­PO­MO­TO­RY­KA
Vol. 22, nr 58
INDEX COPERNICUS
UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
CRACOW, POLAND
UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
IN WROCLAW, POLAND
CRACOW – WROCLAW 2012
ISSN 1731-0652
KOMITET REHABILITACJI, KULTURY FIZYCZNEJ
I INTEGRACJI SPOŁECZNEJ PAN
MIĘDZYNARODOWE STOWARZYSZENIE MOTORYKI SPOR­TO­WEJ – IASK
AN­TRO­PO­MO­TO­RY­KA
Vol. 22, nr 58
INDEX COPERNICUS
AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FI­ZYCZ­NE­GO
IM. BRO­NI­SŁA­WA CZECHA W KRA­KO­WIE
AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FI­ZYCZ­NE­GO
WE WROCŁAWIU
KRAKÓW – WROCŁAW 2012
ANTROPOMOTORYK A
ISSN 1731-0652
COMMITTEE FOR REHABILITATION, PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SPORT KINETICS – IASK
UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, CRACOW, POLAND
UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN WROCLAW, POLAND
VOL. 22, NR 58 CRACOW – WROCLAW 2012
EDITORIAL
COMMITTEE
CHAIRMAN
Edward Mleczko
VICE-CHAIRMAN
Zofia Ignasiak
MEMBERS
Jan Chmura, Jerzy Januszewski, Andrzej Klimek, Tadeusz Koszczyc, Lesław Kulmatycki,
Wiesław Osiński, Joachim Raczek, Teresa Sławińska-Ochla, Włodzimierz Starosta
EDITORIAL BOARD
Michal Belej (Slovakia), Peter Blaser (Germany), Tadeusz Bober, Janusz Czerwiński, Sławomir Drozdowski,
Józef Drabik, Joanna Gradek, Peter Hirtz (Germany), Josif Moisiejewicz Fejgenberg (Israel), Adam Haleczko,
Andrzej Jopkiewicz, Han C.G. Kemper (Holland), Krzysztof Klukowski, Vladimir Lyakh (Russia),
Robert M. Malina (USA), Wacław Petryński, Ryszard Przewęda,
Igor Ryguła, Stanisław Sterkowicz, Stanisław Żak
EDITOR’S OFFICE
al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków
Poland
Indexed in INDEX COPERNICUS
This publication is funded in part by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education
Translation: Wiesław Horabik, Barbara Przybyło, Transatlantic Communication – Sylwia Willcox
Proofreading: Barbara Przybyło, Transatlantic Communication – Sylwia Willcox
© Copyright by University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland
Design and DTP: University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland
Print: ArtProm, 31-431 Kraków, ul. Dukatów 29
Circulation: 150
ANTROPOMOTORYK A
ISSN 1731-0652
KOMITET REHABILITACJI, KULTURY FI­ZYCZ­NEJ I INTEGRACJI SPOŁECZNEJ PAN
MIĘ­DZY­NA­RO­DO­WE STO­WA­RZY­SZE­NIE MOTORYKI SPORTOWEJ – IASK
AKADEMIA WY­CHO­WA­NIA FI­ZYCZ­NE­GO IM. BRONISŁAWA CZE­CHA W KRA­KO­WIE
AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FIZYCZNEGO WE WROCŁAWIU
VOL. 22, NR 58 KRAKÓW – WROCŁAW 2012
REDAKCJA
Redaktor Naczelny
Edward Mleczko
Z-ca Redaktora Na­czel­ne­go
Zofia Ignasiak
Komitet Redakcyjny
Jan Chmura, Jerzy Januszewski, Andrzej Klimek, Tadeusz Koszczyc, Lesław Kulmatycki,
Wiesław Osiński, Joachim Raczek, Teresa Sławińska-Ochla, Włodzimierz Starosta
RADA REDAKCYJNA Michal Belej (Słowacja), Peter Blaser (Niemcy), Tadeusz Bober, Janusz Czerwiński, Sławomir Drozdowski,
Józef Drabik, Joanna Gradek, Peter Hirtz (Niemcy), Josif Moisiejewicz Fejgenberg (Izrael), Adam Haleczko,
Andrzej Jopkiewicz, Han C.G. Kemper (Holandia), Krzysztof Klukowski, Vladimir Lyakh (Rosja),
Robert M. Malina (USA), Wacław Petryński, Ryszard Przewęda,
Igor Ryguła, Stanisław Sterkowicz, Stanisław Żak
ADRES REDAKCJI al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków
Poland
Czasopismo ANTROPOMOTORYKA jest umieszczone na liście rankingowej INDEX COPERNICUS
Publikacja częściowo dotowana przez Ministerstwo Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego
Tłumaczenie: Wiesław Horabik, Barbara Przybyło, Transatlantic Communication – Sylwia Willcox
Adiustacja i korekta: Barbara Przybyło, Transatlantic Communication – Sylwia Willcox
© Copyright by University School of Physical Education in Cracow
Opracowanie gra­ficz­ne i łamanie: Dział Projektów Wydawniczych AWF Kraków
Druk: ArtProm, 31-431 Kraków, ul. Dukatów 29
Nakład: 150 egz.
NR 58
2012
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
CONTENTS
From Editors: Quo vadis, “Antropomotoryka-Kinesiology”?
Information for the Authors
7
11
ORIGINAL PAPERS
Adam Haleczko, Leszek Korzewa, Ewa Misiołek, Urszula Włodarczyk
In search of trials evaluating the rhythm of movement 17
Ján Junger, Lenka Tlučáková, Róbert Kandráč, Pavol Čech
Effects of a multimodal exercise program on postural stability of older adults 27
Elżbieta Cieśla, Zdzisław Domagała, Małgorzata Markowska, Edward Mleczko, Grażyna Nowak-Starz,
Agnieszka Przychodni
The differences in the level of biological health indicators for 7-year-old children living in different regions of Poland 33
Asta Šarkauskienė
Influence of two-year non-formal physical education program on health-related physical fitness of 11–13 years
old children 47
Paweł Chmura, Andrzej Rokita, Marek Popowczak, Ireneusz Cichy
Reactions of the cardiovascular system during physical education classes in first grade primary school children 57
Anna Poznańska, Joanna Stożek, Zuzanna Filar, Katarzyna Filar-Mierzwa
The role of eurhythmics and dance classes in shaping the physical and musical development of preschool children 65
Dariusz Gierczuk, Vladimir Lyakh, Aneta Gierczuk
Changes in the level of coordination motor abilities in Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 12–19 75
Przemysław Bujas, Dariusz Tchórzewski, Janusz Jaworski
The size of asymmetry in relation to the strength and speed-strength indices of lower extremities in alpine skiers 87
Szymon Krasicki, Janusz Brudecki, Magdalena Wójciak
Sports aspects of high mountain skiing 95
Józef Bergier, Barbara Bergier, Zofia Kubińska
Free time and the physical activity of nurses 103
DISCUSSIONS
Robert Girandola
Global obesity in the 21st century: causes, prevention and treatments 111
Wiesław Osiński, Robert Szeklicki
Development of gerokinesiology: one of the greatest challenges faced by sport sciences 117
Włodzimierz Starosta
Human movement science – past, present and future (on example of monograph “Human Movement Science –
Anthropokinesiology”) 127
–5–
NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
SPIS TREŚCI
Od Redakcji: Quo vadis, „Antropomotoryko-Kinesiology”?
Informacje dla Autorów
7
13
PRACE ORYGINALNE
Adam Haleczko, Leszek Korzewa, Ewa Misiołek, Urszula Włodarczyk
W poszukiwaniu prób oceniających rytm motoryczny
17
Ján Junger, Lenka Tlučáková, Róbert Kandráč, Pavol Čech
Wpływ multimodalnego programu ćwiczeń na stabilność postawy osób w starszym wieku 27
Elżbieta Cieśla, Zdzisław Domagała, Małgorzata Markowska, Edward Mleczko, Grażyna Nowak-Starz,
Agnieszka Przychodni
Różnice w poziomie biologicznych wskaźników zdrowotnych u siedmioletnich dzieci mieszkających w różnych
regionach Polski 33
Asta Šarkauskienė
Wpływ realizacji dwuletniego programu zajęć pozalekcyjnych z wychowania fizycznego na sprawność fizyczną
dzieci w wieku 11–13 lat 47
Paweł Chmura, Andrzej Rokita, Marek Popowczak, Ireneusz Cichy
Reakcje układu krążenia w czasie lekcji wychowania fizycznego u uczniów pierwszej klasy szkoły podstawowej 57
Anna Poznańska, Joanna Stożek, Zuzanna Filar, Katarzyna Filar-Mierzwa
Rola zajęć rytmiczno-tanecznych w kształtowaniu rozwoju fizycznego i muzycznego dzieci w wieku przedszkolnym
65
Dariusz Gierczuk, Vladimir Lyakh, Aneta Gierczuk
Zmiany poziomu koordynacyjnych zdolności motorycznych u zapaśników stylu klasycznego w wieku 12–19 lat
75
Przemysław Bujas, Dariusz Tchórzewski, Janusz Jaworski
Wielkość asymetrii wskaźników siłowych i szybkościowo-siłowych kończyn dolnych u narciarzy zjazdowców
87
Szymon Krasicki, Janusz Brudecki, Magdalena Wójciak
Sportowe aspekty narciarstwa wysokogórskiego
95
Józef Bergier, Barbara Bergier, Zofia Kubińska
Czas wolny a aktywność fizyczna pielęgniarek
103
POLEMIKI I DYSKUSJE
Robert Girandola
Globalna otyłość w XXI wieku: przyczyny, zapobieganie, leczenie
111
Wiesław Osiński, Robert Szeklicki
Rozwój gerokinezjologii: jedno z najpilniejszych wyzwań dla nauk o kulturze fizycznej
117
Włodzimierz Starosta
Przeszłość, teraźniejszość i przyszłość nauki o ruchu człowieka (na przykładzie monografii „Human Movement
Science – Anthropokinesiology”)
127
–6–
NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
FROM EDITORS  OD REDAKCJI
QUO VADIS, “ANTROPOMOTORYKA-KINESIOLOGY”?
QUO VADIS, „ANTROPOMOTORYKO-KINESIOLOGY”?
We are only in mid-2012. Having editorial goals formulated, content with our four-year close and fruitful cooperation with the University School of Physical Education
in Wroclaw in the field of publishing “AntropomotorykaKinesiology”, we look forward to the nearest assessment of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education.
We do not expect too much, being aware that we have
only been printing our journal for the public to read in
English for a short time. In addition, we are traditionalists attached to our mission and program, which
we have developed since 1989, when first number of
our quarterly appeared on the market. At that time
“Antropomotoryka-Kinesiology” was brought out as a
publishing joint venture set up together with National
Scientific Publishers PWN in Krakow. Then there was a
split-off from PWN and we had to continue and expand
the program that remained practically unchanged on
our own. Can we continue our mission this way? From
our past experience we know that this is not a rhetorical
question.
For all marketing purposes it is important for us to
be competitive. These days selling just one more copy
(and the knowledge contained therein) is a difficult task
to follow. What do we have to do to achieve our ambitious goals? We have not got a ready answer to that
question. As a matter of fact we are still working on it.
With the most vital questions put forward for consideration and discussion during the latest Wroclaw–Krakow
extended board meeting we would like to familiarize
you, the readers of “Antropomotoryka-Kinesiology”,
in the next editorial. And now, in mid-2012, let’s go
through the content of this issue of Wroclaw-Krakow
“Antropomotoryka-Kinesiology”.
Our review of papers featured in current number
of “Antropomotoryka-Kinesiology” we would like to
begin with the publication of our loyal co-workers from
Wroclaw, dynamically working under the guidance of
the nestor of contemporary Polish researchers in the
field of human motoricity. In the paper entitled In search
of trials evaluating the rhythm of movement – complementary to their study on motor skills testing that appeared in one of previous issues of “AntropomotorykaKinesiology” – the authors, aware that they did not pay
enough attention to coordination skills before, focus our
interest on the rhythmicity of movement, more specifically on the possibility of applying several motor tests
to assess the sensory aspects of the rhythm of movement. The article is recommended not only for practical
reasons, but also because of the valuable research
tools to evaluate the validity and reliability of motor skills
they have employed.
The ability to keep balance is commonly known as
a key factor in maintaining postural stability especially in
older adults. Numerous studies have shown that along
with lowering the balance level we observe the rise in
risk factor, which is responsible for falls and frequent
ailments or even bone fractures. Every effort is made,
therefore, to improve the body balance in older adults
and a variety of trainers is used for this purpose. The
team of Slovak researchers in the paper entitled Effects
of a multimodal exercise program on postural stability
of older adults presents the results of an experiment.
The exercise program of their own authorship had positive effects in terms of postural stability improvement,
measured under conditions with visual control. There
were no similar effects in case of measuring the stability under condition of eyes being closed.
The paper entitled The differences in the level of
biological health indicators for seven-year-old children
living in different regions of Poland presents the results
–7–
From Editors
of research that was an integral part of the national
project “Six-year-old child on the threshold of school
education” which was conducted in the first decade of
21st century. The study was aimed to prove the hypothesis that in the transition period in Poland there were
no differences in somatic and motor development of
children and young people living in provinces differing
widely from each other in the rate of economic growth
and economic development.
In order to verify the aforementioned hypothesis
an anthropological method of social gradients was employed. Basing on the analysis of the results of 8415
children (4302 girls and 4113 boys living in four provinces of Poland) the authors failed to prove the thesis that
there was no connection between social stratification
and biological development of children. As it turned out,
the poverty that was generally observed in “the eastern
wall” of Poland (Podkarpackie, Lubelskie and Podlaskie
Provinces), where the lowest rate of economic growth
was recorded, could have adversely affected somatic
and motor development of young people. In their peers living in the richest Mazowieckie Province a higher
development level of the basic indicators of biological
development was recorded. The results are of interest
not only in cognitive terms, because they lead to the
conclusion that there is an urgent need to change public policy, the effects of which are now causing the formation of adverse effects in the biological development
of Polish children.
It seems that almost all positive changes that cause
the reduction in the above adverse trends in the motor
development of children (at home and abroad) may contribute to modifications implemented by PE teachers,
according to Lithuanian paper entitled Influence of twoyear non-formal physical education program on health-related physical fitness of 11–13 years old children.
The study proves that all original teaching methods
designed to stimulate the interest in physical activity of
students, especially in the field of their motor improvement, are useful for uniting and integrally developing
their knowledge and achievements.
In the article entitled The role of eurhythmics and
dance classes in shaping the physical and musical development of preschool children some results concerning the improvement in the techniques of teaching preschool children, corresponding to the above-mentioned
idea, are evidenced.
The study entitled Reactions of the cardiovascular
system during physical classes in first grade primary
school children presents interesting, though debatable,
method for measuring the effects of motor development
in children on early educational level. The authors proved the usefulness of automatic heart rate registration
by means of Sport Testers during running games, as
well as the usefulness of these measurements for the
assessment of intensity of physical activities.
The authors of three subsequent papers focus our
attention on effects of training in selected groups of
children and young people oriented towards practising
competitive sports. In the study Changes in the level of
coordination motor abilities in Greco-Roman wrestlers
aged 12–19 the authors put into consideration different
pace of development in some coordination motor abilities of young wrestlers practising Greco-Roman style
against a background of their untrained peers.
In the article entitled The size of asymmetry in relation to the strength and speed-strength indices of lower
extremities in alpine skiers it was demonstrated empirically, although on relatively small group of study participants, that in Poland the strength of the lower limbs of
young skiers practising sports professionally was varied.
According to the authors it may exert adverse influence
on the level of achieved athletic performance.
Theoretical and practical aspects of alpine skiing
are pondered in the paper concerning Sports aspects
of high mountain skiing. Alpine skiing, put among most
popular sports in our country, is characterized from the
perspective of its recreational and professional practising by 109 participants in the study conducted on
the basis of authors’ own questionnaire. The results,
among other things, proved the need for further organizational and financial development of alpine ski sport
as well as improvement in training methods. From that
perspective joining Polish professionals to the group of
top international competitors is a must, even greater today than it was before.
Using the IPAQ questionnaire is a key problem of the
article devoted to Free time and the physical activity of
nurses, in which the issues concerning physical activity
of nurses depending on the amount of their free time
are presented. The authors bore in mind that nursing
is closely associated with female gender. Moreover, in
that occupational group the authors sought to determine the relationship between the level of physical activity
and free time. It turned out that the relationship between these two factors is directly proportional. The more
free time the nurses have, the more time on practising
sports they spend.
“Antropomotoryka-Kinesiology” has not had such
a strong group of authors who have agreed to publish
–8–
From Editors
articles in Polemics and Discussions section. We enjoy the featuring in our journal the paper submitted
by Robert Girandola (USA), Associate Professor of
the Department of Human & Evolutionary Biology,
University of Southern CA, Los Angeles. In September
2011 he was a keynote speaker in the conference devoted to Current and Future Researches of Human
Movement Science – Anthropokinesiology, organized by the University School of Physical Education in
Cracow together with the IASK. In his article Global
obesity in the 21st century: causes, prevention and treatments Prof. Girandola presents his views on obesity:
How does the major epidemic of the twenty-first century affect poor and industrialized nations? What are
the prognoses about the development of obesity? Is it
true that there will be 2.3 billion overweight people in
the world in 2015? I think that the dilemmas pointed out
in the above paper require careful consideration. The
discussion about the solving methods and care solutions of this global phenomenon is a question of time.
The problem that has arisen on a global scale with
a large force is the quality of senior citizens life. In our
journal this matter is put forward by two scientists from
Poznan in the article entitled Development of gerokinesiology: one of the greatest challenges faced by
sport sciences. As it turns out, there is an urgent need
to establish the life in our country under the rules of
gerokinesiology, the subdiscipline which has been developed successfully in several countries these years.
Our task will be to learn and to apply effective methods
to improve physical fitness and quality of life in older
people through the development and use of a variety of
physical activity programs. It seems that gerokinesio­
logy will be the most useful tool supporting undervalued
geriatric care system in Poland, because the number
of geriatricians in our country is almost the lowest in
Europe. In addition, there are prognoses that in 2060
the highest percent of people in the EU over the age of
65 years will be in Poland (36.18%)!
In the third polemical paper, Human movement
science – past, present and future (on example of
monograph “Human Movement Science – Anthropo­
kinesiology”), Mr. President of the IASK familiarizes
the readers with the book under the above title (which
is also the subtitle of his paper). As it seems, we can
find herein the interpretation of research on human
movement and the vital issues of a subdiscipline which
may be called in an original way anthropokinesiology.
Having read sound arguments of Mr. President, I wonder whether we could ask him for permission to add the
prefix “anthropo-“ to the word “kinesiology” in the title:
“Antropomotoryka-Kinesiology”. The problem appears
to be disputable, and we would like to leave the question of the title and profile of our quarterly open until the
next release of our journal, who knows, maybe the last
time issued in Polish?
As always, I remain with kind regards and respect,
and I wish you, dear readers of “AntropomotorykaKinesiology”, a good read.
–9–
Edward Mleczko
Editor-in-chief
“Antropomotoryka-Kinesiology”
NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
INFORMATION FOR THE AUTHORS
1. “Kinesiology” (“Antropomotoryka”) is an official scientific
quarterly of the International Association of Sport Kinetics
– IASK, pub­lished at the University School of Physical Edu­
cation, Cracow, Poland under the auspices of the Committee
Rehabilitation, Physical Education and Social Integration the
Polish Acad­emy of Sciences.
The magazine presents the results of original re­search work
and experiments in the field of human mo­to­r­icity and re­lated
sciences. It also publishes review ar­ticles, opinion ar­ticles and
discussion of scientists evalu­ating the current situation and
perspectives of sci­en­tific de­vel­opment of human motoricity.
2. Materials for publication (one copy of computer printouts)
should be sent together with the compact disc at the following
address: Redakcja “Antropomotoryki”, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego, al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków, tel.
12 683 12 78, tel/fax 12 683 10 76 or at the e-mail address:
[email protected].
3. General conditions:
• Upon submitting a paper to be published the Author
(Authors) trans­fers copyright to the Publishing House of
the “Antro­po­mo­to­ryka”. The works qualified for pub­li­cation
become therefore the prop­erty of the Publishing House
of the “Antro­po­mo­to­r yka” and cannot be published in
extenso or in fragments in other pe­ri­odi­cals or other media
without the written per­mission of the Publisher. The work
submitted for publication in the “Antro­po­mo­to­ryka” cannot
be submitted for pub­li­cation ear­lier on or simultaneously
in any other pe­ri­odical. The Author is required to make
a written statement to this effect. If the work in­cludes
any figures, tables, etc. which have al­ready been published elsewhere, the Author is obliged to obtain a written
per­mission for re­printing.
• “Antropomotoryka” accepts demonstrative, origi­n al,
experimental, and historical papers, in­for­mation about
conferences, reports from con­gresses and con­ferences
on human motoricity, short summa­ries of works pub­
lished in foreign pe­ri­odi­cals and book re­views on human
motoricity. Origi­nal works are accepted in En­glish.
• The works of particular sci­en­tific value sub­mitted and
accepted for pub­li­cation earlier on in a for­eign sci­en­
•
tific periodical can also be submitted for publication in
the “Antro­po­mo­to­r yka”, however, on condition that the
Author ob­tains a permission from the publisher of the
pe­ri­odical.
All papers should be no longer than 22 pages with 1800
letters per page (i.e. 30 lines 60 points each). They should
be in double-spaced or 1,5 spaced typewriting on one
side of the paper only.
4. Rules of constructing the work:
• The accompanying letter should contain both home and
office addresses and the information at which address to
send the correspondence.
• Empirical works should contain the following in­for­mation:
title, name(s) of the author(s), key words in Polish and in
English, brief summary in Polish, summary in English
(as mentioned above), in­tro­duction, ma­terial, methods,
results and dis­cussion, con­clusions and bib­li­og­ra­phy.
• The number of key words should be from 3 to 15.
• The summary has to contain: the purpose of the work,
material, methods, results and con­clusions.
• The first page should contain the information in the
following order: title, name(s) of the author(s), scientific
degree(s) of the author(s) and the pro­fessional affiliation,
including the address, key words, brief summary in Polish
and in English. The summary should not contain less than
200 and no more than 250 words.
• The reference materials should be listed on a sepa­rate
sheet of paper. Only the aterials the Author refers to in
the text may be included. They should be num­bered using
Arabic numerals and placed in the order they are quoted
in the work (not in the alphabetic order). Each item of the
reference materials should be written in a new verse.
The surname(s) of the author(s) of the quoted work
should be followed by the initials of their first name(s),
then the original title of the maga­zine where the work
was published should be given. The abbre­viation of
the title of a magazine should be taken from the Index
Medicus (or In­ter­na­tional Committee of Medical Journal
Editors: Uni­form Re­quirements for manu­scripts submitted in bio­medical jour­nals. N Engl J Med 1997; 336,
309–315).
– 11 –
Information for the Authors
Examples:
a) works printed in magazines:
• Casella R, Bubendorf L, Sauter G, Moch H,
Michatsch MJ, Gasser TC: Focal neu­roen­do­crine
differentiation lacks prognostics sig­nifi­cance in
prostate core needle biopsies. J Urol, 1998; 160:
406–410.
b) monographs:
• Matthews DE, Farewell VT: Using and Un­der­
standing Medical Statistics, ed 3, re­vised. Basel,
Karger, 1966.
c) chapters in textbooks:
• Parren PWHI, Burton DR: Antibodies against
HIV-1 from phage display libraries; Mapping of an
immune response and progress towards antiviral
immu­no­therapy; in Capra JD (ed.): An­ti­body Engineering, Chem. Immunol. Basel, Karger, 1997,
65: 18–56.
• Kokot F: Fizjologia nerek; w. Zieliński J, Leń­ko J
(eds): Urologia, War­sza­wa, PZWL, 1992, 1: 9–20.
All the illustrations have to be of high quality. Graphic
material should be submitted on white sheets of pa­per.
Copies of photographs and pho­to­graphs should be sub­
mitted on glossy paper. The con­secutive num­ber of the
photograph should be written with a soft pencil on the back
side of each photograph as well as an arrow marking its
top edge. Only black and white pictures are printed. Scales
and pictures should be placed on separate pages and
numbered with Arabic numerals. The headings, descriptions and suscriptions under the pictures and above the
scales should be written in Polish and English.
Example in Polish:
Tabela 1., Ryc. 1., Objaśnienia, Chłopcy
Example in English:
Table 1., Fig. 1., Commentary, Boys
Please, use round pa­ren­the­ses. Physical or chemical
for­mu­lae should be written clearly. This re­fers par­ticu­larly
to in­di­ces and ex­po­nents.
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The reference materials should be given in the order of
quotation.
[1] Żekoński Z, Wolański N: Warunki społeczno-by­to­we
jako czynniki rozwoju człowieka w Wo­lań­ski N (red.):
Czynniki rozwoju człowieka. War­sza­wa, PWN, 1987,
68–88.
[2] Malarecki I: Zarys fizjologii wysiłku i treningu spor­to­we­
go. Warszawa, Sport i Turystyka, 1975.
[3] Bouchard C, Malina RM: Genetics of phy­sio­lo­gi­cal
fit­ness and motor performance. Exerc. Sport. Sc. Rev.
1983; 11: 112–115.
[4] Szopa J: W poszukiwaniu struktury mo­to­rycz­no­ści:
ana­li­za czynnikowa cech somatycznych, funk­cjo­nal­
nych i prób spraw­no­ści fizycznej u dziewcząt i chłop­
ców w wie­ku 8–19 lat. Wyd. Monograficzne, Kraków,
AWF, 1983; 35.
While quoting the reference materials in the text, only squ­
are parentheses with the number of the quoted item in Arabic
numerals should be given. When qu­oting two or more works
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or­der of their pu­bli­ca­tion.
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• Current copies of Antropomotoryka and those from the files
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• Summaries in Polish and English can be found at the
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– 12 –
NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
INFORMACJE DLA AUTORÓW
1. „Antropomotoryka” („Kinesiology”) jest ofi­c jal­nym, recenzowanym kwartalnikiem na­uko­wym Mię­dzy­na­ro­do­we­go
Stowarzyszenia Mo­to­r y­ki Spor­to­wej – IASK, wy­da­wa­nym
w Akademii Wy­cho­wa­nia Fi­zycz­ne­go w Kra­ko­wie pod pa­tro­
na­tem Ko­mi­te­tu Rehabilitacji, Kultury Fizycznej i Integracji
Społecznej PAN. W cza­so­piśmie przed­sta­wia­ne są wyniki
ory­gi­nal­nych ba­dań i do­świad­czeń w dzie­dzi­nie mo­to­r ycz­no­
ści czło­wie­ka oraz dziedzin po­krew­nych. Za­miesz­cza­ne są
również pra­ce prze­glądo­we, poglądy oraz dys­ku­sje oceniające
obec­ny stan i per­spek­t y­w y rozwoju do­rob­ku ba­daw­cze­go
sze­ro­ko po­ję­tej an­tro­po­mo­to­r y­ki.
2. Materiały przeznaczone do druku (jeden egzemplarz
wydruku komputerowego) należy przesłać łącznie z płytą
CD na adres: Redakcja „Antropomotoryki”, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego, al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków,
tel. 12 683 12 78, tel./fax 12 683 10 76 lub na adres poczty
elektronicznej e-mail: [email protected].
3. Warunki ogólne
• Zgłoszenie pracy do druku jest jed­no­znacz­ne z przekazaniem przez au­to­ra (au­to­rów) prawa do własności
Redakcji „An­tro­po­mo­to­r y­ki”. Prace za­kwa­li­fi­ko­wa­ne do
wy­dru­ko­wa­nia stają się zatem wy­łącz­ną własnością Re­
dak­cji i nie można ich pu­bli­ko­wać w całości lub w części
w in­nych cza­so­pi­smach lub mediach cyfrowych bez
pi­s em­n ej zgo­dy Wydawcy. Praca złożona do druku
w „Antropomotoryce” nie może być także wcześniej
ani równocześnie złożona w in­nym cza­so­pi­śmie, co
stwierdza autor w pi­sem­nym oświad­cze­niu. W razie
umieszczenia w pracy rycin lub ta­bel itp., pochodzących
z opra­co­wań opu­bli­ko­wa­nych w innych cza­so­pi­smach
autor ma obo­wią­zek uzy­ska­nia zgody na przedruk.
• Redakcja „Antropomotoryki” przyjmuje do dru­ku pra­ce
poglądowe, oryginalne, doświadczalne, opra­c o­wa­nia
hi­sto­r ycz­ne, komunikaty kon­fe­ren­cyj­ne, spra­woz­da­nia
ze zjaz­dów i konferencji o tema­ty­ce an­tro­po­mo­to­r ycz­nej
oraz krót­kie stresz­cze­nia prac wy­dru­ko­wa­nych w czaso­
pi­smach za­gra­nicz­nych i recenzje książek z za­kre­su
teorii mo­to­r ycz­n ości czło­w ie­k a. Pra­c e przeglądowe
i ory­gi­nal­ne będą zre­da­go­wa­ne w ję­zy­ku polskim. Ar­ty­
kuły mogą być pu­bli­ko­wa­ne w ję­zy­ku angielskim.
•
•
Prace przed­sta­wia­ją­ce dużą war­tość na­ukową, za­kwa­
li­fi­ko­wa­ne wcze­śniej do wy­dru­ko­wa­nia w cza­so­pi­śmie
za­gra­nicz­nym, mogą być rów­nież zgło­szo­ne do druku
w „An­tro­po­mo­to­r y­ce”, jed­nak pod wa­run­kiem uzyskania
przez autora pi­sem­nej zgo­dy Wy­daw­cy cza­so­pi­sma,
w któ­r ym teksty zostały lub zo­staną opu­bli­ko­wa­ne.
Objętość artykułu nie powinna przekraczać 22 stron wydruku komputerowego, na których zamieszczono po 1800
znaków (np.: 30 wierszy po 60 znaków). Praca musi być
napisana jednostronnie z podwójną lub 1,5 interlinią.
4. Zasady konstrukcji pracy
• W liście towarzyszącym prosimy podać do­kład­ne ad­re­sy
(zarówno prywatny, jak i miejsca pra­cy) z zaznaczeniem,
gdzie należy przesyłać ko­re­spon­den­cję.
• Prace empiryczne powinny mieć następujący układ: ty­tuł,
imię (imiona) i nazwisko autora (ów), słowa klu­czo­we w języku polskim i angielskim, zwięzłe stresz­cze­nie w języku
polskim i an­giel­skim, wstęp, materiał i metody, wyniki
ba­dań, dys­ku­sja, wnioski oraz wy­kaz piśmiennictwa.
• Słowa kluczowe powinny liczyć od 3 do 15 wy­ra­zów.
• Streszczenie musi zawierać: cel pracy, materiał, me­to­dy
lub materiał i metody, wyniki, wnioski.
• Na pierwszej stronie opracowania należy za­mie­ścić
w ko­lej­ności: tytuł pracy w języku polskim i an­giel­skim,
imię i na­zwi­sko autora(ów), stopień na­uko­wy au­to­ra(ów),
miejsce za­kła­du pra­cy, sło­wa kluczowe oraz zwięzłe
stresz­cze­nie po pol­sku i an­giel­sku. Jego objętość nie
może być mniejsza niż 200 i nie większa niż 250 słów.
• Spis piśmiennictwa należy wydrukować na osob­nej
stro­nie. Prosimy wymienić w nim jedynie po­zy­cje, na
które autor powołuje się w tekście. Po­win­ny być one
nu­me­ro­wa­ne cy­fra­mi arabskimi i usze­re­go­wa­ne w kolejności cytowania ich w pra­cy (a nie w kolejności al­fa­be­
tycz­nej). Każdą po­zy­cję piśmiennictwa należy zapisywać
od no­we­go wiersza. Po nazwisku autora (lub wszyst­kich
au­to­rów) cytowanej pracy należy po­dać pierw­sze li­te­r y
imion, a następnie tytuł pracy w brzmie­niu ory­gi­nal­nym
oraz nazwę czasopisma, z któ­re­go praca pochodzi. Skrót
tytułu cza­so­pi­sma na­leży podać zgodnie z jego brzmie­niem
w Index Medicus (patrz rów­nież: International Com­mit­tee of
Medical Jo­ur­nal Editors: Uniform re­qu­ire­ments for ma­nu-­
– 13 –
Informacje dla Autorów
scripts sub­mit­ted to bio­me­di­cal jo­ur­nals. N Engl J Med
1997; 336; 309–315).
Przykłady:
a) prace wydrukowane w cza­so­pi­smach:
• Casella R, Bubendorf L, Sauter G, Moch H,
Michatsch MJ, Gasser TC: Focal neu­ro­en­do­cri­
ne dif­fe­ren­tia­tion lacks pro­gno­stic si­gni­fi­cian­ce
in pro­sta­te core needle biopsies. J Urol, 1998;
160: 406–410.
b) monografie:
• Matthews DE, Farewell VT: Using and Un­der­
stan­ding Me­di­cal Statistics, ed 3, re­vi­sed. Ba­sel,
Karger, 1996.
c) rozdziały w książkach:
• Parren PWHI, Burton DR: Antibodies aga­inst
HIV-1 from phage display libraries; Map­ping of an
im­mu­ne response and progress towards antiviral
im­mu­no­the­ra­py; in Ca­pra JD (ed.): An­ti­bo­dy En­
gi­ne­ering. Chem Immunol. Ba­sel, Kar­ger, 1997,
65: 18–56.
• Kokot F: Fizjologia nerek; w Zieliński J, Leń­ko J (red.):
Uro­lo­gia, Warszawa, PZWL, 1992, 1: 9–20.
Materiał ilustracyjny musi mieć bardzo dobrą ja­kość. Po­
wi­nien być wykonany na białych kart­kach. Re­pro­duk­cje
zdjęć oraz fotografie należy przy­go­to­wać na błysz­czą­cym
papierze fo­to­gra­ficz­nym. Na od­wro­cie fo­to­gra­fii trzeba
napisać mięk­kim ołów­kiem jej kolejny numer oraz zaznaczyć strzałką, gdzie znaj­du­je się jej górny brzeg. Redakcja
dru­ku­je je­dy­nie zdję­cia czarno-białe. Tabele i ryciny należy zamieszczać na oddzielnych stronach i nu­me­ro­wać
cyframi arabskimi. Ich nagłówki, ob­ja­śnie­nia oraz podpisy
pod rycinami i nad tabelami powinny być w języku polskim
i angielskim. Przy­kład:
Tabela 1., Ryc. 1., Objaśnienia, Chłopcy
Table 1., Fig. 1., Commentary, Boys
Prosimy używać nawiasów okrą­głych. Wzory mu­szą być
napisane czytelnie, szcze­gól­nie wskaźni­ki i wykładniki
potęg.
Artykuł może być napisany na edytorze od Word 6.0 do
2007, Open Office, w for­ma­cie DOC lub RTF. Ilu­stra­cje,
ta­be­le i wy­kre­sy powinny być za­miesz­czo­ne w osobnych
plikach, a na wydrukach oraz na mar­gi­ne­sie za­zna­czo­ne
ołów­kiem ich miej­sce w tekście. Wykresy na­le­ży wy­ko­nać
w kolorze czar­nym. Moż­na stosować tin­ty szare o różnym
na­tęże­niu lub tek­stu­ry. W opisach, ze względów es­te­tycz­
nych, prosimy stosować czcionkę jed­no­ele­men­to­wą (np.
arial). Nie należy nad­uży­wać wyróżnień (bold, ita­lic). Przy
ska­no­wa­nych ilustracjach rozdzielczość musi wy­no­sić co
najmniej 300 dpi. Ilustracje czar­no-białe (line art.) po­win­ny
być w formacie TIFF, a zdjęcia (grey) w for­ma­cie TIFF lub
JPEG (w ni­skim stopniu kompresji, do 10%). Wszystkie pli­ki
mogą być spa­ko­wa­ne RAR-em lub ZIP-em. Po sko­pio­wa­niu
na CD należy spraw­dzić, czy wszyst­kie pliki się kopiują.
Spis piśmiennictwa powinien być sporządzony we­dług
ko­lej­no­ści cytowania:
[1] Żekoński Z, Wolański N: Warunki społeczno-by­to­we
jako czynniki rozwoju człowieka; w Wo­lań­ski N (red.):
Czyn­ni­ki rozwoju człowieka. Warszawa, PWN, 1987;
68–88.
[2] Malarecki I: Zarys fizjologii wysiłku i treningu spor­to­
we­go. Warszawa, Sport i Turystyka, 1975.
[3] Bouchard C, Malina RM: Genetics of phy­sio­lo­gi­cal
fit­ness and motor performance. Exerc Sport Sc Rev,
1983; 11: 112–115.
[4] Szopa J: W poszukiwaniu struktury mo­to­rycz­no­ści:
ana­li­za czynnikowa cech somatycznych, funk­cjo­nal­
nych i prób spraw­no­ści fizycznej u dziewcząt i chłop­
ców w wie­ku 8–19 lat. Wyd. Monograficzne, Kra­ków,
AWF, 1988; 35.
Powołując się w tekście na daną pozycję pi­śmien­nic­twa na­le­
ży podać w nawiasie kwadratowym tylko cy­frę arab­ską.
Przy­ta­cza­jąc dwie lub większą ich licz­bę należy podawać
w na­wia­sie kwa­dra­to­wym ko­lej­ność chro­no­lo­gicz­ną ich
wy­da­nia.
5. Uwagi Redakcji
• Wszystkie prace podlegają ocenie i są ano­ni­mo­wo re­cen­
zo­wa­ne.
• Redakcja zapoznaje autora z uwagami re­cen­zen­tów.
• Odbitka szczotkowa pracy jest wysyłana do Autora pocztą
elektroniczną jako plik PDF. Po niezbędnej korekcie
i akceptacji pracy do druku należy ją odesłać w terminie
do 10 dni na adres e-mail Redakcji „Antropomotoryki”.
Przetrzymywanie korekty może spowodować przesunięcie
artykułu do następnego numeru.
• Redakcja „Antropomotoryki” zastrzega sobie prawo adiustacji, dokonywania poprawek w zakresie ujednolicania
nazewnictwa i ewentualnego skracania tekstów.
• Przysyłane do druku artykuły (wraz z oświadczeniem –
patrz: Warunki ogólne) powinny być kierowane do Redakcji pismem przewodnim podpisanym przez samodzielnego
pracownika nauki, równocześnie odpowiadającego za
merytoryczną stronę opracowania.
• Autor otrzymuje bezpłatnie plik PDF z zawartością numeru „Antropomotoryki”, w którym zamieszczono jego
pracę. Czasopismo w formie książkowej można zamówić
odpłatnie przy zwrocie korekty autorskiej pod adresem:
[email protected].
• Pełne numery bieżące i archiwalne „An­tro­po­mo­to­ry­ki”
moż­na zamówić odpłatnie w Krakowskiej Księ­gar­ni Kultury
Fizycznej, al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kra­ków, tel/fax
(012) 681 36 22.
• Streszczenia w języku polskim i angielskim są zamieszczone na stronie internetowej: www.awf.krakow.pl; link:
wydawnictwa, czasopisma, antropomotoryka oraz www.
journals.indexcopernicus.com.
– 14 –
ORIGINAL PAPERS
PRACE ORYGINALNE
NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
IN SEARCH OF TRIALS EVALUATING
THE RHYTHM OF MOVEMENT
W POSZUKIWANIU PRÓB OCENIAJĄCYCH
RYTM MOTORYCZNY
Adam Haleczko*, Leszek Korzewa**, Ewa Misiołek**, Urszula Włodarczyk**
***PhD, Wrocław, ul. Kotsisa 21/4, Poland
***PhD, Department of Athletics and Gymnastics, University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland
Key words: rhythm of movement, muscles relaxation, 10-year-old children, tests
Słowa kluczowe: rytm motoryczny, rozluźnienie mięśni, dzieci dziesięcioletnie, testy
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Introduction. In one of our previous works devoted to the selection of children for sports training, in a battery of tests evaluating motor preparation we omitted the trials evaluating the rhythm of movement and ability
of muscles relaxation. These two components of motor skills are essential for the diagnosis and prognosis of
subsequent achievements of children. In this study we consider the first of them, the value of which, especially
in the field of teaching and perfecting the technique of movement, has been highlighted by a number of authors. The omission of the concept of the sense of rhythm from selection tests, despite such positive feedback,
resulted from the lack of practically proven and adequate method of testing and evaluating this ability. In his
work Hiriartborde, who used factor analysis, demonstrated the absence of one independent evaluator of this
ability in the motor sphere. The above conclusion was also confirmed in studies carried out by Raczek and
Mynarski. The results of these studies have explained the reasons for low effectiveness of the performance
measurement tools used so far in this area.
Aim of the study. The research was purposed to gather the information about the possibility of applying
several motor tests to assess the sensory aspects of the rhythm of movement.
Material and methods. The sample under study included 83 boys and girls, the fourth-graders at two elementary schools. The analysis contained morphological and chronological age, 5 results of motor tests used
in selection for sports training, which were supplemented by two rhythm aptitude tests (lateral step-test and
lateral step-test after the metronome signals). The material was analyzed statistically by calculating the basic
indices and simple correlations.
Results. The obtained results were presented in 4 tables informing about the size, variability and relationships
between the data. The analysis showed significant connections between both-feet lateral jumps and two attached
tests of lateral steps, but the above links evaluated in terms of correlation coefficient and ranged near the critical
threshold of significance. In the group of girls the relationship between the step-test and the total result of the
set of selection tests turned out to be significant. In the trial with the metronome, there was no such relationship.
Interesting was also the correlation of the last trial with crossing the ladders in the hanging position, which is
statistically significant in the group of girls. In boys the coefficient r approached only to significance threshold.
Summing up, in the two included tests, especially in girls, certain elements of the sense of rhythm were observed.
However, results of these tests were less effective in terms of diagnosis than both-feet lateral jumps.
Conclusions. From among the above three tests, both-feet lateral jumps and other two attached tests adapted
to study on the rhythm of movement, only the first one occurred to be effective in evaluating the rhythm of
movement. The remaining two, despite low relationships, provided the information which confirmed the Hiriartbode’s hypothesis of several factors comprising the ability to perform rhythmic movements. The tests mentioned
above require further study to be assessed more deeply, which may help to increase their relevancy.
– 17 –
Adam Haleczko, Leszek Korzewa, Ewa Misiołek, Urszula Włodarczyk
Wstęp. W jednej z naszych wcześniejszych prac poświęconych doborowi dzieci do szkolenia sportowego,
w zestawie testów określających przygotowanie motoryczne zabrakło prób oceniających poczucie rytmu motorycznego oraz zdolności do rozluźniania mięśni. Te dwie składowe motoryki mają istotne znaczenie dla diagnozy
i prognozy późniejszych osiągnięć dzieci. Rozpatrujemy pierwszą z nich, której wartość, szczególnie w nauczaniu
i doskonaleniu techniki ruchu, podkreśla szereg autorów. Niewłączenie czucia rytmu do testów doboru, mimo tak
pozytywnych opinii, wynikało z braku sprawdzonej w praktyce, adekwatnej metody badania i oceny tej zdolności.
Prace Hiriartborde`a z zastosowaniem analizy czynnikowej udowodniły, że nie ma w sferze motoryki jednego
samodzielnego testu oceniającego tę zdolność. Potwierdziły to badania Raczka i Mynarskiego. Wyniki ww. badań
wyjaśniają przyczyny niskiej skuteczności stosowanych dotąd narzędzi pomiarowych w tej dziedzinie.
Cel pracy. Zebranie informacji o możliwości zastosowania kilku prób motorycznych do oceny czucia rytmu
motorycznego.
Materiał i metody. Badaniami objęto 83 dzieci obojga płci z klas czwartych dwu szkół podstawowych. W analizie uwzględniono wiek metrykalny i morfologiczny uczniów oraz wyniki pięciu prób motorycznych stosowanych
w ramach doboru do szkolenia sportowego, które uzupełniono dwiema próbami, które jak hipotetycznie przyjęto
mogły służyć do badania uzdolnień rytmicznych (boczny step-test i boczny step-test z sygnałami metronomu).
Materiał opracowano pod względem statystycznym, obliczając podstawowe wskaźniki i korelacje proste.
Wyniki. Uzyskane dane przedstawiono w czterech tabelach informujących o wielkości, zmienności i związkach przeprowadzonych pomiarów. Analiza korelacji wykazała istotne związki przeskoków bocznych obunóż
z obu dołączonymi próbami bocznego step-testu, aczkolwiek więzi między tymi dwiema, ocenione za pomocą
wartości współczynnika korelacji, wahały się w granicach progu istotności. W grupie dziewcząt znaczący okazał
się związek step-testu z łączną oceną zestawu selekcyjnego testów, przy czym w próbie z metronomem nie zaobserwowano korelacji. We wspomnianej grupie uwagę zwraca istotny związek tej ostatniej próby z przejściem
drabinek w zwisie, podczas gdy u chłopców współczynnik r zbliżył się jedynie do progu istotności. Reasumując,
w obu dołączonych próbach, szczególnie u dziewcząt, obserwuje się pewne elementy czucia rytmu. Ustępują
one jednak pod względem diagnozy próbie przeskoków bocznych obunóż.
Wnioski. Z trzech prób: przeskoków bocznych obunóż i dwóch dołączonych, które przyjęto do badania rytmu
motorycznego, skutecznym narzędziem do oceny rytmu motorycznego okazuje się tylko pierwsza. Dwie pozostałe,
mimo niskich związków, dostarczają jednak innych informacji, co potwierdza hipotezę Hiriartborde`a o kilku czynnikach składających się na zdolność rytmizacji ruchów. Wymienione próby wymagają dalszych prac nad głębszym
ich poznaniem i ewentualną możliwością zwiększenia ich trafności.
Introduction
Maria Kapczyńska [1, p. 1] begins her dissertation
upon the study and evaluation of rhythmic movement
for physical education and sports with the words: “The
natural tendency of human body is the tendency to get
maximum benefit with minimum energy.” Saving vital
energy positively affects the rhythmization of activities
aimed at ordering the motor process. Kapczyńska defines it pointing out that “The rhythmicity of movement
we understand as the compliance of a movement with
the rhythm of motion (subjectively) intended by a movement performer, or the rhythm (objectively) imposed
on him/her from the outside by a variety of rhythmic
signals [1, p. 15].” In somewhat different manner these
two forms of rhythm determine Mynarski and Raczek
[2, p. 32], who stipulate that this pheno­menon “manifests itself in the adaptation of movements to given
(external) rhythms or in applying purposeful, intentional (internal) rhythm of a performer.” In particular,
the rhythmicity of movement is linked with human motoricity in workplace as well as in the area of physical
education and sport, being most evident in physical
fitness of a high level.
Bearing the above-mentioned in mind, we made an
attempt to verify the applicability of several tests aimed
at assessing motor coordination abilities on the grounds
of motor rhythmicity. In our previous text published in
Antropomotoryka-Kinesiology no. 45 [3] we presented
a battery of tests designed to assess motor ability and
coordination skills in 10-year-olds for the purposes of
selection for sports training. In the aforementioned battery of tests we omitted, however, through lack of proven scientific measurement tools (especially in terms of
accuracy), the issues of the sense of motor rhythm and
ability of muscles relaxation. Among the few that have
expressed the alarm at lack of tests for evaluation the
sense of motor rhythm and ability to muscle relaxation
are, to best of our knowledge, Lyakh and Foreman [4].
Unfortunately, this lack exists even today, in opposition
to standpoints of major authors in this field, regarding
these two abilities as priority areas for achievements
in sport. Particularly meaningful in this regard are the
words of Meinel [5, pp. 180–181]: “Under the term
– 18 –
In search of trials evaluating the rhythm of movement
′concept of rhythm of movements′ we understand the
dynamic structure of motor movement, shaped by the
periodic variation of tension and muscle relaxation.
This applies not only to cyclical movements, but also
acyclic. Characteristic variation in tension and relaxation is typical for throws and jumps.” The author also refers to sports training as such, formulating remarks for
physical educators and coaches: “Great achievements
in competitive sports are permanently associated with
the interdependence of great strength and ability to relax [5, p. 196].” Sozański and colleagues [6] emphasize the purposefulness of motor rhythm research on
children and youth attending sport schools, providing
information about the dynamics of changes in that ability during the years of education and training, as well as
an element of selection for sports training.
Czajkowski [7, p. 29] in his comments on R.A.
Schmidt’s book, Motor Learning and Performance from
the Practical Principles, refers to Schmidt’s arguments
for developing temporary movement programs, and
suggests following Schmidt’s key recommendation:
“Capturing and mastering the basic rhythm movement
is a top prior and most difficult task; after mastering it
the use of different variables of performance indicators
is much easier.” Similarly expresses this problem Meinel
[5, p. 193]: “The mastery of rhythm, even roughly, is the
cornerstone and the foundation of the first success in
professional sports mobility.” Mayor and Stronczyński
[8, p. 69] in a comprehensive study discussing the
importance of rhythm in teaching and advancing the
movement, among other things state: “The higher is
the stage of improving sporting technique, the more
pronounced is the role of the rhythm contained inside.
The rhythm somehow emphasizes the quality of the
art in the dynamic time-space dimension.” This raises
the question of why, despite the great importance of
this capacity for training and achievements in sport, in
practice there are no proven methods of testing and accurate measuring.”
In the mid-twentieth century several works determining the rhythm on the grounds of factor analysis were produced. Special attention should be paid
to the study of rhythmic motor abilities published by
Hiriartborde [9]. The experimental material consisted
of 65 female students at the Higher School of Physical
Education in Paris. Measurement tool was made up
of three sets of tests. The first set consisted of seven
rhythmic tests, the second one included five psychomotor tests, whereas the third one was formed of music
and personality tests. After taking out the tests con-
cerning music and personality from the measurement
tool, only 21 variables were taken into account in the
analysis, and from among five considered factors only
3 were significant. This allowed the author to formulate
the hypothesis about the absence of one independent
factor responsible for the sense of rhythm and to point
out that these three that had emerged, constituted the
basis of rhythmic abilities. The first factor was determined by the perception of rhythm. The second (in the
factor analysis IV), in Hiriartborde’s opinion, was dependent on synchronized response to rhythmic stimuli.
The third factor was responsible for practicing complex
movements while involving different body parts. These
were the movements that occurred in various sports
that required good coordination. In conclusion of his
research Hiriartborde opted for the independence of
three factors selected by rhythmic aptitude, suggesting
at the same time that it was impossible to enclose the
sense of rhythm globally. The above results were confirmed by the research of Mynarski and Raczek [2], who
employed factor analysis to determine the coordination
motor abilities of children and adolescents. The sense
of rhythm did not emerge as an independent factor in
the course of analysis. The results of the aforementioned studies present the level of difficulties caused
by the great demands for the construction of a tool for
measuring motor rhythmic ability test that would fully
satisfy all the researchers.
In this case, the only thing was to search for tests
providing detailed information about the factors that constitute the sense of rhythm. Among the attempts to determine this ability we put our modification of Schilling test
[10] as a tool in selecting children for sports training (the
description of which you can find in AntropomotorykaKinesiology no. 52 [11]). Apart from the assessment of
motoricity, this modified test is distinguished by a diagnosis of mental ability of candidates and this seems to
be important, bearing in mind Hiriartborde’s comments
[9] that in the study devoted to rhythm and motor coordination Wight also took into account children’s intelligence quotient. In accord with the above-mentioned
there was demonstrated that both rhythmization and intelligence were two components of motor coordination.
Raczek and Mynarski [2] have recommended jumps
over a bar (the original version) as a key element in
evaluation the ability to perform high-frequency motion.
In his later work Mynarski [12] describes, after all, jumps
over a bar as a tool examining the frequency of movement throughout the body. Raczek [13] counts Schilling
test among tools assessing both coordination abilities
– 19 –
Adam Haleczko, Leszek Korzewa, Ewa Misiołek, Urszula Włodarczyk
and speed. According to Mleczko [14], however the
frequency of movement constitutes an important component of speed ability, it should not be included into
energetic predispositions, but into coordinative ones,
whereas Prus [15] uses Schilling test to study the rhythm
of movement throughout the body.
analysis [16, 17]. The results of 7 motor tests were
also taken into account; including 5 above-mentioned
forming the battery of tests adjusted for the purposes
of selection for sports training [3]. Two remaining tests
were selected as a result of surveys conducted on university students and regarded as promising opportunity
to evaluate certain elements of motor rhythm (detailed
directions for performance is placed in the appendix attached to this publication). The results were calculated
with the help of basic methods of mathematical statistics [18].
Aim of the study
The purpose of our research was to gather the detailed
information about the possibility of applying both-feet lateral jumps as a measurement tool in assessment of the
sense of the rhythm of movement, bearing in mind that
this instrument should also prove its usefulness both in
amassing the data about the factors making up this ability and in identification these factors in other trials.
Results
The results obtained are presented in four tables informing about the size, variability and relationships of
variables determining the age and motoricity of participants. Due to arithmetic mean age (calendar and
morphological) examined in terms of physical development, boys and girls hardly differ (Tables 1–2). In motor
fitness tests however the predominance of boys was
observed, equalling the level of efficiency in coordination test and that was evidenced by small differences
in mean values of results. In the lateral step-test with
metronome girls achieved even slightly better results
than boys (Tables 1–2).
Material and methods
The measurements were carried out in April 2011 in
two Wroclaw Primary Schools: no. 2 and no. 53. The
research group was formed of 83 fourth-graders: 43
girls and 40 boys. The data presented herein were calculated for both ages: chronological and morphological
in accordance with the physical health level of subjects,
due to the participation of coordination abilities in the
Table 1. Numerical characteristics of investigated girls (N = 43)
Item
no.
Traits
Min – max
x
S
V
1
Age [years]
Wiek metrykalny [lata]
10.50–11.25
10.88
0.28
2.6
2
Morphological age [years]
Wiek morfologiczny [lata]
7.62–15.50
10.25
1.82
17.8
3
Standing broad jump [cm]
Skok w dal z miejsca [cm]
105–205
142.3
20.5
14.4
4
Chest 1 kg ball put [cm]
Pchnięcie piłki 1 kg [cm]
380 – 800
516.6
88.4
17.1
5
Wall bar cross [s]
Przejście drabinek w zwisie [s]
4.89–24.57
13.437
5.538
41.2
6
Pass over and under cross-bar
Przejścia nad i pod poprzeczką [s]
9.48–20.13
14.244
2.275
16.0
7
Both-feet lateral jumps [s]
Przeskoki boczne obunóż [s]
3.04–8.88
4.517
0.894
19.8
8
Lateral step-test [s]
Boczny step-test [s]
5.44 – 9.80
7.178
1.069
14.9
9
Lateral step-test with metronome [grade]
Boczny step-test z metronomem [stopień]
2–6
3.6
1.3
37.2
25.4–896.1
129.6
147.4
113.7
10
Łączna ocena 5 prób – wskaźnik
Total grade of 5 trials – index
3¥ 4
5¥6¥7
– 20 –
In search of trials evaluating the rhythm of movement
Table 2. Numerical characteristics of investigated boys (N = 40)
Item
no.
Traits
Min – max
x
S
V
1
Age [years]
Wiek metrykalny [lata]
10.50–11.75
10.88
0.33
3.0
2
Morphological age [years]
Wiek morfologiczny [lata]
7.50–13.75
10.23
1.35
13.2
3
Standing broad jump [cm]
Skok w dal z miejsca [cm]
120–210
150.1
22.0
14.6
4
Chest 1 kg ball put [cm]
Pchnięcie piłki 1 kg [cm]
400–800
595.1
89.5
15.0
5
Wall bar cross [s]
Przejście drabinek w zwisie [s]
5.20 – 24.02
12.218
6.481
53.0
6
Pass over and under cross-bar [s]
Przejścia nad i pod poprzeczką [s]
8.32 – 16.74
13.144
2.093
15.5
7
Both-feet lateral jumps [s]
Przeskoki boczne obunóż [s]
2.67–5.47
4.405
0.629
14.3
8
Lateral step-test [s]
Boczny step-test [s]
4.70–11.00
6.981
1.188
17.0
9
Lateral step-test with metronome [grade]
Boczny step-test z metronomem [stopień]
2–6
3.4
1.2
35.1
27.6–1046.6
206.0
196.7
95.5
10
Total grade of 5 trials – index
Łączna ocena 5 prób – wskaźnik
3¥ 4
5¥6¥7
Using Pearson’s simple correlation allowed assessing the value of relationships between particular trials
and total results of the set of selection test (Table 3 and
4). In both groups aggregated results of correlations
reached the highest level of significance, being higher
in boys than in girls, with the exception of side-steptest. This test in boys formed a highly significant correlation only with booth-feet lateral jumps. The same
value of coefficient was observed in girls. Among the
trials taken to assess the rhythm, in terms of correlation coefficient level, the domination of both-feet lateral
jumps was observed. Interesting are the relationships
between lateral step-test with metronome and crossing
the ladders in hanging position adopted as a trial measuring relative strength of upper body muscles and a tool
for the purposes of evaluating coordination. In addition,
in boys the relationships reaching the significance
threshold were noted between the lateral step-test and
its version with metronome, and with passing over and
under cross-bar. The relationships between these tests
suggest that they had some common elements.
Summing up, from among three analyzed trials only
both-feet lateral jumps can be of significant value for
the studies on rhythm. The other two require further
research.
Conclusion
In practice, from among three above-mentioned tests
only both-feet lateral jumps can be applied to the study
on the rhythm of movement. The side-step test, despite the low intercorrelation, however, provide other
types of information than both-feet lateral jumps, and
thus supports the hypothesis of Hiriartborde several
factors that comprise the ability to perform rhythmic
movements.
– 21 –
– 22 –
20
37*
–16
–18
Chest 1kg ball put
Pchnięcie piłki 1 kg
Wall bar cross
Przejście drabinek w zwisie
Pass over and under cross-bar
Przejścia nad i pod poprzeczką
Both-feet lateral jumps
Przeskoki boczne obunóż
Lateral step-test
Boczny step-test
Lateral step-test with metronome
Boczny step-test z metronomem
Total grade of 5 trials
Łączna ocena 5 prób
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
* r0.05 – 29
** r0.01 – 38
Wszystkie współczynniki korelacji przemnożono przez 100.
All correlation coefficients multiplied by 100.
16
Standing broad jump
Skok w dal z miejsca
3
13
–13
07
08
Morphological age
Wiek morfologiczny
2
1
Age
Wiek metrykalny
Traits
1
Item
no.
–08
–28
26
–13
18
48**
48**
–04
08
2
40**
08
–04
–11
–29*
–23
38**
–04
16
3
Table 3. Correlation coefficients of variables taken for analysis in a group of girls (N = 43)
63**
–08
–16
–38**
–23
–11
38**
48**
20
4
–58**
–35*
28
19
29*
–11
–23
48**
37*
5
–55**
01
23
46**
29*
–23
–29*
18
–16
6
–45**
20
46**
46**
19
–38**
–11
–13
–18
7
–39**
–26
46**
23
28
–16
–04
26
07
8
15
–26
20
01
–35*
–08
08
–28
–13
9
15
–39**
–45**
–55**
–58**
63**
40**
–08
13
10
Adam Haleczko, Leszek Korzewa, Ewa Misiołek, Urszula Włodarczyk
– 23 –
19
27
27
10
Chest 1kg ball put
Pchnięcie piłki 1 kg
Wall bar cross
Przejście drabinek w zwisie
Pass over and under cross-bar
Przejścia nad i pod poprzeczką
Both-feet lateral jumps
Przeskoki boczne obunóż
Lateral step-test
Boczny step-test
Lateral step-test with metronome
Boczny step-test z metronomem
Total grade of 5 trials
Łączna ocena 5 prób
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
* r0.05 – 30
** r0.01 – 39
Wszystkie współczynniki korelacji przemnożono przez 100.
All correlation coefficients multiplied by 100.
14
Standing broad jump
Skok w dal z miejsca
3
–10
01
–28
02
Morphological age
Wiek morfologiczny
2
1
Age
Wiek metrykalny
Traits
1
Item
no.
02
03
03
29
14
35*
34*
–02
02
2
82**
–03
–08
–40**
–55**
–54**
59**
–02
14
3
Table 4. Correlation coefficients of variables taken for analysis in a group of boys (N = 40)
64**
15
–19
–40**
–41**
–33*
59**
34*
19
4
–61**
–25
–06
20
33*
–33*
–54**
35*
–28
5
–65**
16
30*
60**
33*
–41**
–55**
14
01
6
–62**
01
46**
60**
20
–40**
–40**
29
–10
7
–10
–30*
46**
30*
–06
–19
–08
03
27
8
01
–30*
01
16
–25
15
–03
03
27
9
01
–10
–62**
–65**
–61**
64**
82**
02
10
10
In search of trials evaluating the rhythm of movement
Adam Haleczko, Leszek Korzewa, Ewa Misiołek, Urszula Włodarczyk
LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Kapczyńska M: Próba ustalenia testu rytmiczności ruchu
dla potrzeb wychowania fizycznego i sportu. Dysertacja.
Warszawa, AWF, 1975.
[2] Raczek J, Mynarski W: Koordynacyjne zdolności motoryczne dzieci i młodzieży. Struktura wewnętrzna i zmienność osobnicza. Katowice, AWF, 1992.
[3] Haleczko A, Jezierski R, Korzewa L, Misiołek E, Włodarczyk U: Ocena motorycznych zdolności kondycyjnych
i koordynacyjnych dziesięcioletnich dzieci w ramach
doboru do szkolenia sportowego. Antropomotoryka, 2009;
45: 57–75.
[4] Ljach [Lyakh] W, Starosta W: Wpływ wrodzonych i środowiskowych uwarunkowań na zmienność zdolności koordynacyjnych człowieka. Wychowanie Fizyczne i Sport,
2002; 4: 497–510.
[5] Meinel K: Motoryczność ludzka. Warszawa, SiT, 1987.
[6] Sozański H, Kielak D, Kosmol A, Perkowski K, Siwko F,
Sukniewicz M, Śledziewski D, Bednarzowa B, Młodzikowska M: Zmiany sprawności fizycznej w procesie szkolenia
sportowego dzieci i młodzieży. Kultura Fizyczna, 1985;
11–12: 11–14.
[7] Czajkowski Z: Nauczanie i uczenie się czynności ruchowych (1). Rozważania nad książką Richarda A. Schmidta.
Sport Wyczynowy, 1993; 11–12: 21–30.
[8] Starosta W, Stronczyński W: Znaczenie rytmu w nauczaniu i doskonaleniu techniki ruchu. Warszawa – Białystok,
Międzynarodowe Stowarzyszenie Motoryki Sportowej,
2010.
[9] Hiriartborde E: Les aptitudes rythmiques – Etude de
psychologie différentielle. Ecole normale supérieure
d`education physique de jeunes filles. Laboratoire d`étude
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
– 24 –
du comportement psycho-moteur (VIe). Paris, DactyloSorbonne, 1964.
Schilling F: Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK).
Manual. Weinheim, Beltz, 1974.
Haleczko A, Jezierski R, Korzewa L, Misiołek E, Włodarczyk U: Sprawność umysłowa i poziom zdolności
motorycznych 11-letnich dzieci. Antropomotoryka, 2010;
52: 39–50.
Mynarski W: Struktura wewnętrzna zdolności motorycznych dzieci i młodzieży w wieku 8 –18 lat. Katowice, AWF,
1995.
Raczek J: Motoryczność człowieka w świetle współczesnych poglądów i badań. Wychowanie Fizyczne i Sport,
1987; 1: 5–25.
Szopa J, Mleczko E, Żak S: Podstawy antropomotoryki.
Warszawa – Kraków, PWN, 1996.
Prus G: Rozwój rytmu i częstotliwości ruchów u dziewcząt
w wieku 11–13 lat. Kultura Fizyczna, 1997; 3–4: 14–18.
Ignasiak Z, Sławińska T, Domaradzki J, Fugiel J, Krynicka-Pieleszek I, Rożek-Piechura, Żurek G: Rozwój
funkcjonalny dzieci i młodzieży z Legnicko-Głogowskiego
Okręgu Miedziowego w ujęciu wieku morfologicznego.
Studia i Monografie, Wrocław, AWF, 2007; 85.
Żak S: Zdolności kondycyjne i koordynacyjne dzieci
i młodzieży z populacji wielkomiejskiej na tle wybranych
uwarunkowań somatycznych i aktywności ruchowej.
Część I. Wydawnictwo Monograficzne, Kraków, AWF,
1991; 43.
Guilford JP: Podstawowe metody statystyczne w psychologii i pedagogice. Wyd. II, Warszawa, PWN, 1964.
In search of trials evaluating the rhythm of movement
APPENDIX
TESTS DIRECTIONS
Lateral step-test
The participant stands in the middle of two parallel
lines 100 cm long and 75 cm distant from each other. At
the go signal he/she starts moving, executing slip steps
(in Polish: krok odstawno-dostawny) towards the right
line, after that he/she returns to the center, then passes
to the left and goes back to the center, ending the first
cycle including eight movements. The participant is
aimed at the fastest and most correct (feet above the
ground without coming into contact with the lines) performance of four cycles. In assessment it is taken into
consideration the time of 3 trials, including the best one,
measured with accuracy up to the 0.01 sec. Stepping
on the line is treated as a failed attempt without the possibility of repetition.
Lateral step-test with a metronome (signals
generated from a computer or played back
as recorded sounds)
The participant performs the same movements as
in the previous test, adapting them to the rhythm of particular frequency signals from the loudspeaker, gradually increasing by 20 signals per minute from 140/min to
240/min. The participant is aimed to perform correctly
two cycles of motion at each frequency level. The maximum rate, at which he/she maintains compatibility with
the given rhythm (frequency), is the result of the tests
evaluated by the researcher on grading scale between
0 and 6. Two trials are required, failed attempts are not
retaken.
– 25 –
NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
EFFECTS OF A MULTIMODAL EXERCISE PROGRAM
ON POSTURAL STABILITY OF OLDER ADULTS
WPŁYW MULTIMODALNEGO PROGRAMU ĆWICZEŃ
NA STABILNOŚĆ POSTAWY OSÓB W STARSZYM WIEKU
Ján Junger*, Lenka Tlučáková**, Róbert Kandráč**, Pavol Čech***
****Prof. Dr. Habil., Faculty of Sport, University of Presov, Presov, Slovakia
****PhD, Faculty of Sport, University of Presov, Presov, Slovakia
****Mgr., Faculty of Sport, University of Presov, Presov, Slovakia
Key words: postural stability, older age, physical activity, quality of life
Słowa kluczowe: stabilność postawy, podeszły wiek, aktywność fizyczna, jakość życia
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Aim of the study. The aim of the experimental study was to investigate the effects of a multimodal exercise
program on the postural stability of older adults.
Material and methods. The research sample consisted of 19 elderly women aged 62.6 ± 3.05 years, who
showed interest in organized forms of regular exercise. The subjects participated in two 60-minute exercise
sessions per week aimed at the development of strength, endurance, and flexibility over 12 months. To measure
postural stability, all subjects were asked to perform two 30-second trials using the FiTRO Sway check system
with eyes open and eyes closed. To determine the significance of the effects of the multimodal exercise, data
were processed using the paired samples t-test and independent samples t-test.
Results. The postural stability improved significantly upon the completion of the multimodal exercise
program under conditions with visual control. In a similar test without visual control, there was insignificant
decline in the postural stability of the elderly participants.
Conclusions. The exercise program improved the parameters of postural stability measured under conditions with visual control. Under conditions of eyes being closed, participation in the exercise program stabilized
the level of postural stability.
Cel pracy. Ustalenie wpływu multimodalnego programu ćwiczeń na stabilność postawy osób w starszym
wieku.
Materiał i metody. Badaniem objęto 19 kobiet w wieku 62,6 ± 3,05 lat, które zgodziły się uczestniczyć
w 12-miesięcznym programie ćwiczeń, obejmującym udział w dwu 60-minutowych sesjach treningowych tygodniowo, a ukierunkowanym na zwiększenie siły oraz na poprawę wytrzymałości i gibkości uczestniczek. Stabilność postawy kobiet zmierzono w trakcie dwu 30-sekundowych prób, przeprowadzonych z oczami otwartymi
i zamkniętymi, wykorzystując do tego celu urządzenie pomiarowe FiTRO Sway. Wyniki opracowano statystycznie
za pomocą sparowanego testu t-Studenta oraz testu t-Studenta dla próbek niezależnych.
Wyniki. Po zakończeniu multimodalnego programu ćwiczeń u badanych kobiet stwierdzono poprawę stabilności postawy mierzonej w próbie z oczami otwartymi, równocześnie odnotowano nieznaczny spadek stabilności
w podobnym badaniu, prowadzonym bez kontroli wzrokowej.
Wnioski. Multimedialny program ćwiczeń przyczynił się do poprawy parametrów stabilności postawy badanych kobiet, którą mierzono z zachowaniem kontroli wzrokowej. W badaniu prowadzonym bez kontroli wzrokowej
stabilność postawy uczestniczek pozostała natomiast na zbliżonym poziomie.
– 27 –
Ján Junger, Lenka Tlučáková, Róbert Kandráč, Pavol Čech
Introduction
Material and methods
Aging is associated with declines in physiological functioning, which is determined by multiple factors including behavioral, cognitive, and biological [1]. Postural
stability appears to decrease with age from the sixth
to the ninth decade of life [2]. With age and inactivity,
the automatic integration of several body systems that
determine postural stability decreases [3]. The decline
of balance control with age is associated with sensory
and motor functions that are necessary for the continuous detection and correction of postural position. Vision
is an important source of information for the control of
balance. In addition to supplying continued information
about the external environment, vision provides feedback about the position and movements of the body.
While standing, visual information is used to monitor
and moderate postural sway [4].
There is a significant decline in postural control with
increasing age as indicated by COP path and velocity
[5]. This means that with increasing age, the magnitude
and velocity of postural sway increases, so that in a given
period of time, the total sway path in an older adult might
easily double or triple that of a young healthy adult. It is
interesting to note that impaired postural control in elderly people demonstrated by higher values of COP path,
mean COP velocity, and COP path in the mediolateral
direction appear to correlate with increased risk of falling
[2, 6, 7]. Higher risk of falling affects the quality of life in
the population of elderly. Therefore, the need to identify
and apply determinants that eliminate postural instability
in elderly people is becoming highly critical. Accumulating
evidence indicates that physical activity and structured
exercise help maintain an independent life by maintaining
postural stability, strength, endurance, bone density, and
functional mobility [3]. Physical activity positively affects
parameters of postural stability by decreasing postural
sway [2, 8, 9]). Being physically active, which leads to improved postural stability, is considered one of the primary
determinants of reducing the risk of falling [10]. Therefore,
it is vital that physical activity be integrated into the everyday life of the senior population [11].
The inspiring and interesting issue of postural stability resulted in the conduct of the research, which aims
to determine:
1. whether participation in regular group exercise may
affect postural stability in elderly subjects,
2. the effects of a 12-month multimodal exercise program on postural stability under conditions with visual control and without visual control.
The subjects were 19 elderly women, aged 62.6 ± 3.05
years, who were recruited using the snowball sampling
technique. At the beginning of the exercise program, all
subjects were classified as “independent,” i.e. coping
with everyday activities successfully and without limitations. All participants completed a questionnaire about
their health status and provided written, informed consent. In addition, all participants had medical clearance
to participate in the testing and exercise sessions.
The subjects participated from February 2009 to
February 2010 in two 60-minute exercise sessions
per week that aimed for the development of strength,
endurance, and flexibility over 12 months. Overall,
subjects participated in 98 exercise sessions: 57 were
carried out in the weight room, 19 in the gymnasium,
and 22 Nordic walking sessions. The exercise program
represented a group form of exercise that placed emphasis on the individual approach and personal contact
of exercise instructor with exercising participants.
The parameters of postural stability were measured
using stabilometric method under conditions with eyes
open and eyes closed. The subjects completed force
platform tests while standing barefoot with their head
upright and feet pelvis-width apart, gazing straight
ahead at the wall, arms hanging loosely next to the
body. All subjects were asked to perform one practice
trial, then two 30-second trials with eyes open and
eyes closed immediately after explanation and practical demonstration.
Postural stability was measured using the force
platform compatible with the program FiTRO Sway
check [12] that records dynamic changes of the Center
of Pressure position (COP). Force platform output was
sampled at 100 Hz for the trials. The level of postural
stability was evaluated on the basis of the following parameters: total COP path (lcop), mean COP velocity (vcop),
COP path in the mediolateral direction (lM/L), and COP
path in the anteroposterior direction (lA/P).
The results of the measurements were processed
using subject and logical analysis. The statistical evaluation was carried out using the statistical software IBM
SPSS Statistics 19. The collected data were evaluated
by the Shapiro-Wilk test for the normality of distribution.
On the basis of the results, measure of central tendency: arithmetic mean and measures of dispersion; standard deviation; and standard error of the mean were
selected. The statistical significance was assessed
using the paired samples t-test for paired samples of
– 28 –
Effects of a multimodal exercise program on postural stability of older adults
data and independent samples t-test for independent
samples of data. The level of statistical significance
was set at P ≤ 0.05.
Results and discussion
Table 1 presents the results of the assessment of the
normality of data distribution. The data collected under
conditions with eyes open and with eyes closed were
found to be normally distributed. The statistical evaluation of data was based on parametric tests for paired
samples and independent samples of data.
The effectiveness of the exercise program was determined on the basis of the statistical significance between the baseline measures and outcome measures
collected on the completion of the 12-month exercise
program. The statistical characteristics of baseline and
outcome measurements are presented in Table 2. The
statistical significances in differences between baseline and outcome parameters of postural stability under
both testing conditions are presented in Table 3.
The exercise program positively affected the parameters of postural stability measured under conditions with visual control (see Table 2). The difference
Table 1. Evaluation of the normality of data distribution
Shapiro-Wilk test
Key elements
Open eyes
Closed eyes
Statistic
Sig.
Statistic
Sig.
Input
0.935
0.213
0.962
0.606
Output
0.953
0.447
0.974
0.853
Input
0.907
0.064
0.969
0.756
Output
0.954
0.458
0.974
0.855
Input
0.932
0.189
0.934
0.206
Output
0.928
0.158
0.970
0.771
Input
0.931
0.182
0.974
0.855
Output
0.943
0.303
0.955
0.484
lcop
vcop
lM/L
lA/P
Note. lcop – total COP path; vcop – mean COP velocity; lM/L – COP path in the mediolateral direction; lA/P – COP path in the anteroposterior direction.
Table 2. Descriptive characteristics of postural stability parameters
Key elements
VCOP
lM/L
lA/P
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Deviation
Statistic
Std. Error
Statistic
Statistic
Std. Error
Statistic
Input
261.15
12.83
55.91
303.65
15.07
65.70
Output
226.72
8.52
37.16
313.15
16.61
72.41
Input
7.642
0.401
1.75
9.005
0.486
2.117
Output
6.468
0.272
1.187
9.326
0.516
2.248
Input
88.83
4.40
19.181
91.93
4.85
21.14
Output
81.52
3.77
16.42
100.27
7.45
32.48
Input
201.25
11.93
52.01
247.35
14.56
63.46
Output
168.22
7.90
34.43
251.48
14.58
63.53
Closed eyes
Open eyes
lCOP
Mean
Note. lcop – total COP path; vcop – mean COP velocity; lM/L – COP path in the mediolateral direction; lA/P – COP path in the anteroposterior direction.
– 29 –
Ján Junger, Lenka Tlučáková, Róbert Kandráč, Pavol Čech
Table 3. Differences between baseline and outcome measures
Open eyes
Key elements
Closed eyes
t
Sig.
t
Sig.
lCOP
2.972
0.008*
–0.634
0.534
vCOP
3.424
0.003*
–0.684
0.503
lM/L
1.443
0.166
–1.235
0.233
lA/P
3.131
0.006*
–0.306
0.763
Note. lcop – total COP path; vcop – mean COP velocity; lM/L – COP path in the mediolateral direction; lA/P – COP path in the anteroposterior direction;
t – value of t-test.
between baseline and outcome measures was statistically significant (P < .05) in total COP path (lcop), mean
COP velocity (vcop), and COP path in the anteroposterior
direction. The difference of 7.31 mm in the COP path in
the mediolateral direction was found to be statistically
insignificant.
Results recorded under conditions with eyes closed
contrasted with results recorded under conditions with
eyes open. There was minimal increase in the values
of postural stability parameters upon the completion of
the exercise program (see Table 2). The minimal rate
of change was confirmed by statistically insignificant
differences between the measurements (see Table 3)
in all examined parameters of postural stability. There
was a decline in all parameters determining the level of
postural stability at the outcome measurements.
The data collected under conditions with eyes open
and with eyes closed are presented in Table 4. There
were statistically significant differences in all examined
parameters of postural stability with the exception of
COP path in the M/L direction. The most interesting
finding was that the differences in the examined parameters were more significant despite the irrelevance
of the finding based on statistical evaluation.
Postural stability is a highly individual characteristic
that may significantly affect the quality of life and independent functioning late in life.
In order to develop or stabilize postural stability
and determine the effectiveness of participation in the
exercise program under conditions with and without
visual control, we found positive changes in all examined parameters. Therefore, we may conclude that the
completed exercise program exerted a positive effect
on postural stability in the research subjects performing
regular exercise. Physiologically, the application of the
exercise program may have enhanced the peripheral
Table 4. Differences between measurements conducted with eyes open and eyes closed
Levene’s Test for Equality
of Variances
Key elements
lCOP
vCOP
lM/L
lA/P
t-test for Equality of Means
F
Sig.
t
Df
Sig.
Input
0.950
0.336
–2.147
36
0.039*
Output
8.014
0.008
–4.629
36
0.000*
Input
1.270
0.267
–2.165
36
0.037*
Output
6.610
0.014
–4.901
36
0.000*
Input
0.558
0.460
–0.473
36
0.639
Output
5.288
0.027
–2.246
36
0.031*
Input
1.269
0.267
–2.449
36
0.019*
Output
6.327
0.016
–5.023
36
0.000*
Note. lcop – total COP path; vcop – mean COP velocity; lM/L – COP path in mediolateral direction; lA/P – COP path in anteroposterior direction; F – value
of F-test; t – value of t-test.
– 30 –
Effects of a multimodal exercise program on postural stability of older adults
sensation underlying upright stance without evident external perturbations. As reported by Lord, Clark, and
Webster [13], poor performance in measures of postural stability is associated with reduced sensation in
the lower limbs as measured by joint position sense,
tactile sensitivity and vibration sense, reduced quadriceps and ankle dorsiflexion strength, and slow reaction
times.
The statistical insignificance of improvement in COP
path in the mediolateral direction may be attributed to
high baseline values of postural stability parameters
compared to COP path in the anteroposterior direction.
Therefore, the effort to improve a high level of postural
stability prior to the initiation of the exercise program
appears to be a demanding objective.
The findings of the presented study are consistent
with findings of other studies, which have reported the
positive effect of partial components of an implemented
exercise program on postural stability. Significantly
higher levels of postural stability were reported in subjects performing walking [8, 9]. The participation in
exercise program increased muscle strength, which
led to improved postural stability. Wiacek et al. [14]
confirmed exponential correlation between strength of
lower body part and postural balance. Liu-Ambrose et
al. [10] reported decreases in postural sway after applying resistance and agility training, and stagnation value
after stretching. The decline of postural stability is most
evident from the sixth to the ninth decade of life [2] and
the decline in muscle strength, especially in postural
muscles and plantar flexors [9].
The maintenance or improvement of postural stability bears certain specific features. As reported by
Hamill and Knutzen [15], a body may be stable in one
direction and not in another. Spreading one’s feet apart
increases the area of the base of support and makes
the individual stable if pushed in the mediolateral direction while maintaining stability in the anteroposterior direction. This is associated with other factors
as well, such as the natural direction of locomotion
[16], the composition of the ankle joint [16], even the
number of degrees of freedom in the anteroposterior
direction as compared to the mediolateral direction.
Several studies targeted at different populations have
confirmed greater postural sway in the anteroposterior direction compared to the mediolateral direction
[18, 19, 20, 21].
Under conditions with eyes closed, there were no
positive changes upon the completion of the exercise
program on the basis of the evaluation of mean values.
On the contrary, there was a slight decline in postural
stability. However, this finding cannot be regarded as
negative. Taking into consideration the chronological
age of the participants, we consider the maintenance
of the baseline level of postural stability a positive result
induced by the participation in the exercise program.
From the viewpoint of basic stages of development, the
purpose of regular exercise in late life is not to attain the
highest level of motor fitness possible, but to offset the
involution-associated changes and to secure independent functioning of elderly people when performing the
activities of daily living.
The clarification of the research findings is based
on the assumption that the effect of vestibular, visual,
and proprioceptive functions on postural stability has
not been supported by sufficient amount of scientific
evidence. The results of the presented study contrast
with the findings of Véle [22], who reported that the
exclusion of visual control should not result in decreased postural control. On the other hand, there is
a majority of studies with similar research objective.
Woollacott et al. [23] reported that deficit in one of the
aforementioned factors may impair postural stability.
Åstrand et al. [24] confirmed the decisive function of
the proprioceptive organs in terms of maintaining stability. As reported by Simeoneau et al. [25], the exclusion of proprioceptive information would affect postural stability the same way as the exclusion of vestibular and visual apparatus would. Thus, vision may
transfer more accurate information to the CNS than
proprioceptive information [26]. Declines in postural
stability as measured with eyes closed were reported
by other studies [11, 27, 28]. Sturnieks, Lord [4] report
that elderly people are especially reliant on sensory
information to monitor and moderate postural sway,
as sway area increases approximately 30% when
closing the eyes while standing [29]. In quiet standing
with eyes closed, the velocity of the COP displacement and the area of the confidential ellipsis increase
[16]. Our findings are consistent with the findings
of Nagy et al. [30] who reported that the absence
of visual feedback caused a significant increase in
COP path in both the M/L and A/P direction with significantly higher sway path in the A/P direction. The
comparison of COP path in the M/L direction at the
baseline measurements between conditions with and
without visual control did not reveal any significant
differences. On the contrary, the differences in the
COP path in the A/P direction at the baseline measurement were statistically significant.
– 31 –
Ján Junger, Lenka Tlučáková, Róbert Kandráč, Pavol Čech
Conclusions
The research findings are not generalizable due to the
low number of study participants. The purpose of the
experimental study was to pinpoint the use of organized
form of exercise as a means of the enhancement of the
quality of life by warding off the involution changes in
elderly population.
We may conclude that the group form of exercise
is an appropriate and effective way of improving or
stabilizing the level of postural stability under both
testing conditions. With regard to the effects of the
intervention program, statistically significant improvements were observed only under conditions with visual control.
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– 32 –
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NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
THE DIFFERENCES IN THE LEVEL OF BIOLOGICAL
HEALTH INDICATORS FOR 7-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN
LIVING IN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF POLAND
RÓŻNICE W POZIOMIE BIOLOGICZNYCH WSKAŹNIKÓW
ZDROWOTNYCH U SIEDMIOLETNICH DZIECI
MIESZKAJĄCYCH W RÓŻNYCH REGIONACH POLSKI
Elżbieta Cieśla*, Zdzisław Domagała*, Małgorzata Markowska*,
Edward Mleczko**, Grażyna Nowak-Starz*, Agnieszka Przychodni***
****PhD, Faculty of Health Sciences, The Jan Kochanowski University of Humanities and Sciences in Kielce, Poland
****Prof. Dr. Habil., Department of Theory and Methodology of Athletics, University School of Physical Education in
Cracow, Poland
****PhD, Faculty of Pedagogy and Art, The Jan Kochanowski University of Humanities and Sciences in Kielce, Poland
Key words: environmental and socio-economic factors, seven-year-old children, positive health
indicators, Eurofit tests
Słowa kluczowe: czynniki środowiskowe i socjoekonomiczne, siedmioletnie dzieci, pozytywne
wskaźniki zdrowia, testy Eurofit
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Aim of the study. High level of physical fitness in children is determined by keeping desirable body
weight which correlates with many positive health aspects. The purpose of the research was to identify
the differences in the development of body functions considered as positive health indicators in children
finishing pre-school education (a preparatory year called “the zero class” attached either to kindergartens or
primary schools) and living in the area commonly known as “the eastern wall”, which includes Podkarpackie,
Lubelskie and Podlaskie Provinces, in comparison with their peers living in Mazowieckie (Mazovia) Province.
It was assumed that physical fitness of seven-year-old children may be determined by socio-economic
situation in their place of living. This phenomenon tends to be particularly noticeable in the regions where
economic growth has been relatively low compared to the region with the highest level of development.
The consequences of the differences in the level of functional development of seven-year-old children are
also likely to occur in the future. They may involve the differences not only in the level of development, but
also in adult quality and style of life, as well as negative health aspects such as incidence and mortality rate
due to lifestyle diseases.
Material and methods. The results of the research, which involved 8415 children including 4302 girls and
4113 boys examined in April-May of 2006 and living in the above-mentioned areas, were analysed. Selected
elements of Eurofit tests were applied to measure different aspects of fitness and motor control abilities. Questionnaire survey was conducted in order to collect information on the place of living, development and health
conditions of seven-year-old children. The research findings were statistically verified by means of one-way
analysis of variance extended by Least Significant Difference (LSD) test.
Results and cocnlusions. The research results revealed significant differences in the level of some components that define physical fitness between children living in eastern provinces of Poland and their peers from
central part of the country.
– 33 –
E. Cieśla, Z. Domagała, M. Markowska, E. Mleczko, G. Nowak-Starz, A. Przychodni
Cel pracy. Określenie zróżnicowania poziomu rozwoju funkcjonalnego dzieci kończących roczne przygotowanie w szkolnych i przedszkolnych oddziałach „zerowych” do edukacji szkolnej, z regionu tzw. ściany wschodniej,
do której zaliczono: województwo podkarpackie, lubelskie oraz podlaskie, w porównaniu do ich rówieśników
z województwa mazowieckiego. Założono, pomimo sygnalizowania zjawiska zanikania gradientów społecznych
w rozwoju biologicznym dzieci i młodzieży, że w regionach o niskim tempie rozwoju gospodarczego w porównaniu
z Polską centralną (dane z 2004–2005 r., opublikowane przez GUS w 2007 r.) zauważa się dysproporcje rozwojowe
nie tylko w odniesieniu do podstawowych cech somatycznych, lecz także motorycznych – ważnych z punktu
widzenia prawidłowego funkcjonowania dzieci w środowisku rówieśniczym.
Materiał i metody. Analizie poddano wyniki badań 8415 dzieci mieszkających w wyżej wymienionych regionach, w tym 4302 dziewcząt i 4113 chłopców, badanych w miesiącach kwiecień–maj 2006 roku. W zakresie
sprawności zbadano różne aspekty zdolności kondycyjnych i koordynacyjnych, posługując się wybranymi próbami
z testu Eurofit. Przeprowadzone obszerne badania ankietowe posłużyły do zebrania informacji na temat środowiska
zamieszkania, wykształcenia rodziców, warunków mieszkaniowych oraz rodziny i zdrowia sześciolatków. Badania
przeprowadzono w ramach projektu badawczego „Dziecko sześcioletnie u progu nauki szkolnej”, współfinansowanego ze środków Unii Europejskiej oraz Budżetu Państwa w ramach Europejskiego Funduszu Społecznego. Dane
poddano weryfikacji statystycznej. W celu weryfikacji przyjętej hipotezy zastosowano test F-Snedecora.
Wyniki i wnioski. Wyniki badań wskazują na istotne różnice w poziomie rozwoju wysokości i masy ciała oraz
niektórych aspektów siły i koordynacji u dzieci zamieszkujących województwa wschodnie w porównaniu z ich
rówieśnikami z Polski centralnej.
Introduction
According to the contemporary definition of health,
physical fitness – an inseparable element of health – is
considered as the ability to function efficiently and effectively in everyday activities which determines a state
of well-being. The level of fitness, defined by how well
the body performs in each of the physical fitness components, depends, among others, on genetic and morphological factors [1, 2, 3, 4]. Regular physical activity
is also important to keep fit. The benefits of physical fitness increase with more frequent and regular physical
activities [5]. Both, the level of fitness and motor activity
determine health status of a population regardless of
age [6]. These two elements are closely correlated with
incidence and mortality rate due to cardiovascular diseases, metabolic disorders, cerebrovascular accidents
(CVA) and some types of cancer [7]. It is believed that
physical fitness, which determines increased physical
activity and quality of life, tends to be better determinant of health-related habits than physical activity [6,
8]. Health condition and health-related fitness (H-RF) in
childhood appear to be strong predictors of fitness and
physical activity in adult life [9].
The research revealed significant correlations between the measures of strength, flexibility and endurance
taken for the same individuals in their young and adult
life. They are considerably stronger than relationships related to physical activity measured for the same individuals in different periods of their lives. It might be assumed
that high level of fitness in childhood increases the level
of motor activity in adult life. Some research proves that
extensive physical activity at the age of 23–25 is strongly
correlated with good results of cardiac stress tests (or
cardiac diagnostic test) completed in childhood. The research conducted by Dennison et al. [1988] revealed that
proportion of physically active men aged 24 was strongly
associated with their good results of middle distance run
performed at the age of 10–11 and 17–18. What is more,
the number of physically inactive male adults was higher
among those with poor results of middle distance run
as teenagers [10]. Similar assumptions were made by
Kemper [11] in relation to females.
Health-related fitness in groups of children and
young people is determined by many environmental
factors, particularly place of living. It is also influenced
by socio-economic factors including family budget and
parents’ level of education. However, none of the indicators related to family social status directly affects
development of physical activity behaviours. Indirectly,
the above-mentioned social situations are often associated with the differences in important aspects of living
environment that influence morpho-functional deve­
lopment [12]. They include, among others, the level of
hygiene, nutrition, ways of spending free time and the
choice of physical activities performed by parents and
children together. Positive health-related behaviour is
one of the most important elements in child’s living environment e.g. family [13, 14, 15, 16]. All these factors
considered for a certain area will contribute to the situation of humans occupying a particular ecological niche
[17, 18]. Therefore, any modifications of the ecological
niche may result in the change of this situation particularly in relation to males who are commonly considered
– 34 –
The differences in the level of biological health indicators for 7-year-old children living in different regions of Poland
more eco-sensitive than females. The area of living,
e.g. province (Polish: województwo), may be regarded
as a niche where individuals live and work in specific
socio-economic and cultural conditions.
Such factors as lower level of development, higher
rate of unemployment, lower level of education and
household income can have an impact on the situation of families, particularly those raising children. This
is proved by numerous research studies in the field of
auxology. Rural environment and low level of education
have negative influence on the level of physical fitness
and body mass index (BMI) [19]. These environments
do not create favourable conditions for development
of proper health behaviour, nutrition and high level of
physical fitness [16, 20, 21]. The families with higher
standard of living and high socio-economic status provide children with sport-related after-school activities
that strongly determine their level of fitness and healthy
habits [22–24]. Furthermore, they often choose schools
which offer appropriate conditions for development of
all the aspects of physical fitness [25, 26].
The observations discussed above refer to different
parts of Poland, especially eastern regions, in relation
to all-Poland developmental norms and other provinces with high level of development [25, 27, 28]. Due
to diversification in economic and financial potential of
different regions in Poland, it is important to monitor
morpho-functional development, one of the most essential health indicators, especially in pre-school and
early school period. Proper diagnosis should help to
compensate disproportions resulting from cultural, social and economic diversity of the Polish society determined by place of living.
The purpose of the research
The purpose of this research study is to answer the
question: Do the noticeable economic differences
between “the eastern wall” regions and Mazowieckie
Province have a significant impact on changes in the
level of physical fitness in seven-year-old children?
Research material and methodology
The research is an integral part of the national research
project “Six-year-old child on the threshold of school
education” co-financed by the European Union and
the National Budget within the European Social Fund
which was conducted in 2006. In the representative
sample the following aspects were taken into consideration: division in the region represented by a province,
type of educational institution (pre-school or school)
attended by six-year-old children, as well as place of
living: rural or urban area. The method of stratified
and group sampling was applied, based on database
available through online education information system
(Polish: System Informacji Oświatowej) and updated by
the Central Statistical Office (Polish: GUS) in Poland
[29]. Ten per cent of educational institutions of each
type (school or pre-school) determined by the location
were selected from each layer. The children finishing
pre-school education were examined in April-May,
2006. In total, 4113 boys and 4302 girls with all the
physical and motor abilities tested, as well as sociodemographic data provided, were qualified for analysis (Table 1). The average age in the group was 7.1
(sd = 0.33).
In order to verify the hypothesis, the groups of children finishing pre-school education (a preparatory year
called “the zero class” attached either to kindergartens
or primary schools) from east and south-east regions
characterized by the lowest level of gross national
product (GNP) per capita in 2004 were distinguished
from their peers living in Mazowieckie Province where
the average rate of GNP is the highest in Poland [29].
Having taken the limitations resulting from the analysis of gross domestic product (GDP) into account,
the measure of family wealth was verified through the
level of gross earnings for the above-mentioned regions in 2003–2004. The lowest (in Podkarpackie and
Podlaskie Provinces) and low (in Lubelskie Province)
earnings compared with national average salary, which
also referred to Mazowieckie Province with the high-
Table 1. Number of children by region
Gender
Podkarpacie Province
n
Lublin Province
Podlasie Province
%
n
%
n
%
Mazovia Province
n
%
Girls
1026
23.8
922
21.4
540
12.6
1814
42.2
Boys
973
23.7
939
22.8
478
11.6
1723
41.9
– 35 –
– 36 –
4.40
4.45
4.96
4.80
Lublin Province
Podkarpacie Province
Podlasie Province
Number of family members (p ≤ 0.05)
Mazovia Province
Province
of Poland
High level education
Average declared nett income of parents (PLN) (p ≤ 0.01)
9.4
1772.46 12.1
1527.83
2142.64 13.1
2366.92 16.2
Not completed high level education
3.1
1.2
2.3
3.1
Training college
3.2
3.9
4.8
4.1
Vocational secondary school
16.7
19.7
24.9
19.9
Secondary school
5.1
3.6
3.5
3.6
Not completed secondary school
3.5
3.1
2.7
3.7
Vocational education
42.5
50.8
40.8
40.2
Elementary education
13.9
8.2
8.1
9.2
High level education
20.3
14.8
20.5
22.0
Not completed high level education
2.1
1.7
2.6
3.8
Training college
9.7
9.2
10.7
9.2
Vocational secondary school
17.0
22.6
21.0
18.9
Secondary school
8.3
7.2
7.3
7.2
Not completed secondary school
3.5
2.7
3.6
4.1
Vocational education
28.4
35.6
27.4
26.5
Elementary education
10.6
6.1
7.0
8.3
17.4
11.2
15.0
20.4
Very hight
Mother’s education (p ≤ 0.001)
3.2
4.6
4.0
4.0
Not sufficient
Farther’s education (p ≤ 0.001)
Domestic
budget
in last month
(%) (p ≤ 0.001)
Declrared
unemployment
7.0
8.6
6.3
4.9
Fathers (%) p ≤ 0.001
Socio-economic indicators of families
11.5
21.7
15.2
13.4
Mothers (%) p ≤ 0.001
Table 2. Socio-economic indicators of families raising seven-year-old children involved in the research project
E. Cieśla, Z. Domagała, M. Markowska, E. Mleczko, G. Nowak-Starz, A. Przychodni
The differences in the level of biological health indicators for 7-year-old children living in different regions of Poland
est gross earnings, were proved by various statistical
sources [29]. According to the authors, considering
these indicators in relation to 2003–2004 should guarantee an objective approach to analysis of the research
material. They reflect real socio-economic conditions
that affected families raising children at that time.
In addition, the analysis of statistical sources reveals
considerable importance of agriculture and rural areas in
demographic, social and economic structure of eastern
regions compared to central part of Poland [29]. The proportion of population living in rural areas fluctuated from
40.8% in Podlaskie to 59.6% in Podkarpackie, whereas in
Mazowieckie amounted to 35.5% only. It should be also
emphasized that the percentage of people employed in
agriculture varied significantly from 15% in Mazowieckie
to 38.1% in Lubelskie [30]. The statistical data provided
by the Central Statistical Office in Poland was extended
by socio-economic factors that affected families raising
children, who participated in the project (Table 2). The
following components were taken into consideration: the
number of children in a family, reported income of family
members, mother’s and father’s (separately) level of education (including statistically important categories: primary, vocational and higher education in relation to the type
of work and the level of earnings), the number of unemployed family members (excluding mothers on maternity
leave, extended maternity leave or health leave) as well as
subjective assessment of family income (the results were
presented in the following categories: very high, sufficient,
insufficient and below family expectations). It should be
stressed that the number of responses to the questions
discussed above fluctuated e.g. there were only 2–3 responses to the question of family income (Table 2).
The concept of health-related fitness was taken into
consideration when choosing trials and tests to measure physical fitness of six-year-old children with particular focus on those components which allow children to
function properly in different conditions. Additionally,
sport facilities in schools and kindergartens in Poland
were considered. The research project involved the assessment of total body balance, speed of limb movement, flexibility, running speed, abdominal muscular
endurance, explosive strength of lower and upper limbs,
as well as shoulder strength based on Eurofit tests. To
measure explosive strength of upper limbs, an alternative (simplified) version of the test: straight arm hang
was applied since pilot tests revealed that more than
half of children were not able to perform flexed arm
hang. To support the principle of reliability and validity
of fitness tests, each item of testing was placed in the
most effective order, according to Eurofit programme.
The children were also measured anthropometrically
for height and weight with the use of anthropometer
and scales (Table 3).
Basic statistical characteristics (arithmetic mean
and standard deviation) were calculated for such groups
as age, sex and place of residence. At first, one-way
analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine
variations in the means of somatic traits and motor abilities depending on the place of residence. To identify
differences between the groups, one-way analysis of
variance was extended by Least Significant Difference
(LSD) test. This allowed identifying differences in the
average results for each test not only between eastern
regions of Poland and Mazowieckie Province, but also
in all possible configurations. In addition, Pearson’s
Table 3. Basic somatic traits of seven-year-old children
Basic somatic traits in the east and central
Provinces of Poland
Girls
Boys
N
x
sd
N
x
sd
Body height [cm] – Mazovia Province
1722
123.38
5.58
1814
123.35
5.88
– Podlasie Province
478
122.02
5.72
540
123.20
5.74
– Lublin Province
939
121.41
5.56
922
122.79
5.61
– Podkarpacie Province
973
121.47
5.77
1026
123.22
5.63
– Mazovia Province
1722
24.74
4.94
1814
24.61
4.91
– Podlasie Province
478
24.16
5.04
540
24.83
4.73
– Lublin Province
939
23.42
4.52
922
24.65
5.28
– Podkarpacie Province
973
23.81
4.55
1026
24.99
5.15
Body mass [kg]
– 37 –
E. Cieśla, Z. Domagała, M. Markowska, E. Mleczko, G. Nowak-Starz, A. Przychodni
chi-squared test was used to assess relationships between socio-economic data concerning families of the
children involved in the project and their place of residence. To establish statistical significance, the following
levels or critical p-values were chosen: p ≤ 0.05, p ≤ 0.01
and p ≤ 0.001. The calculations were based on Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences SPSS 12.0 where database was added to Excel spreadsheet. SPSS software
was purchased within the research project.
The results of the research project
Based on detailed analysis of socio-economic data,
a similar, average family size was reported among those
raising seven-year-old children involved in the project.
The lowest average was obtained for Mazowieckie
Province. In other provinces the number of family members tends to increase, even up to 5 in Podkarpackie
Province. Net household income of the respondents
differed between the provinces. Relatively low level of
net household income was reported in Podkarpackie
Province; in Mazowieckie, whereas, the level of household income was the highest. In other regions household income was reported between the lowest and the
highest level. Only 3 out of 9 levels of education with the
biggest number of responses were considered: primary, vocational and higher education. It may be assumed
that the level of education will determine resourcefulness at work, type of work and the level of salary. The
highest rate of mothers and fathers with primary education was reported in Podlaskie, whereas the lowest in
Lubelskie and Podkarpackie Provinces where majority
of the respondents acquired vocational education; higher level of education was the least frequent there. The
research revealed higher rate of unemployed mothers
than fathers which often referred to Podkarpackie region.
Children living in eastern Poland were characterised by lower body height compared with those
from Mazowieckie Province. The lowest body heights
were typically found for boys and girls from Lubelskie
Province. Developmental differences were more clearly
visible in the groups of girls than boys. Critical p-value:
p ≤ 0.001 was determined in the group of boys only for
Mazowieckie–Lubelskie configuration, as well as for all
the configurations including Mazowieckie in the group
of girls (Table 1). As far as body mass is concerned,
similarly to body height, considerably low average measures for girls from Lubelskie Province were noticed
where average values were lower by 1 kg compared
with their peers from Mazowieckie. It should be emphasized that there was a tendency to obtain increasingly higher average values in the regions where GNP
rates appeared to be higher than in Lubelskie Province.
Such correlation was also visible in the group of boys
in which average values were similar to those found for
seven-year-olds from Mazowieckie, and a bit higher for
boys living in Podkarpackie (Table 1).
One-way analysis of variance, calculated separately in groups of boys and girls for their motor abilities
and area of living determined by provinces, showed
significant correlations for all the configurations of variables. LSD test calculated for significant value F revealed the differences between east and south-east of
Poland compared with Mazowieckie Province. It must
be emphasized that there was no tendency proving
considerably lower level of physical fitness (in all the
components) in children from “the eastern wall” provinces compared with their counterparts living in central
Poland. The difference is typically determined by a particular motor ability. This proves developing various profiles of physical fitness even in 4–6-year-old children in
relation to their place of living.
The differences in the measures of balance determined by region showed that both boys and girls from
Lubelskie in comparison with other children obtained
the highest average values (Figure 1). On average, they
needed approximately 6 trials to keep balance within
a minute. Children from Podlaskie achieved similar average values, whereas their peers from other related
provinces needed approximately 3 trails more to keep
balance. In the group of girls, the differences only in
configuration Mazowieckie–Podkarpackie did not reveal considerable correlation. Unlike the measures of
balance, the differences in average results calculated
for speed of arm movement in relation to the place of
living were found (Figure 2).
Figure 1. Flamingo balance in comparing groups
– 38 –
The differences in the level of biological health indicators for 7-year-old children living in different regions of Poland
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Figure 2. Plate tapping in comparing groups
–0.5
In both groups, boys and girls, the results appeared
to have been determined by welfare of the province.
The wealthier region, the higher development seemed
to be (children needed less time to perform a test).
Children living in Mazowieckie obtained the highest average results (p ≤ 0.001) (Tables 4 and 5). Similarly to
–1
Figure. 3. Sit and reach in comparing groups
the speed of arm movement, the level of flexibility was
significantly influenced by place of living (Figure 3). The
assumption that children from Mazowieckie Province
Table 4. Motor abilities of seven-year-old children
Motor abilities in the east
and central provinces of Poland
Flamingo balance
Girls
N
x
Boys
sd
N
x
sd
– Mazovia Province
1717
10.40
8.94
1811
11.15
9.27
– Podlasie Province
478
7.51
8.29
540
7.47
8.45
– Lublin Province
938
6.73
8.37
922
6.01
8.40
– Podkarpacie Province
932
9.90
10.04
975
10.39
10.09
– Mazovia Province
1720
23.57
6.42
1811
23.73
6.55
– Podlasie Province
477
20.74
5.36
539
24.46
4.79
– Lublin Province
932
25.72
4.83
915
25.39
5.18
– Podkarpacie Province
938
25.26
4.78
1023
25.06
5.06
– Mazovia Province
1722
1.49
5.59
1814
1.31
5.38
– Podlasie Province
478
1.05
4.80
540
–0.80
5.13
– Lublin Province
939
1.32
5.14
922
–0.08
5.49
– Podkarpacie Province
478
2.44
5.48
1026
0.69
5.18
Standing broad jump – Mazovia Province
1722
96.38
19.56
1814
96.45
19.26
– Podlasie Province
476
95.40
15.60
539
100.18
15.72
– Lublin Province
939
93.37
19.97
922
7.44
5.78
– Podkarpacie Province
971
94.02
19.84
1022
103.08
21.14
– Mazovia Province
1717
9.15
5.01
1813
9.02
4.89
– Podlasie Province
474
9.84
5.31
537
9.61
5.25
– Lublin Province
939
7.23
5.58
922
7.44
5.78
– Podkarpacie Province
971
9.46
5.08
1026
9.89
5.24
– Mazovia Province
1721
27.36
20.66
1809
27.83
22.13
– Podlasie Province
477
28.05
19.17
540
31.96
21.62
– Lublin Province
939
23.21
15.87
917
26.33
18.99
– Podkarpacie Province
970
30.42
24.48
1025
34.74
27.55
5 × 10 m shuttle run – Mazovia Province
1718
26.91
3.64
1811
26.96
3.77
– Podlasie Province
477
27.54
3.47
539
27.04
3.59
– Lublin Province
939
29.04
3.86
918
28.65
4.18
– Podkarpacie Province
972
27.83
3.59
1024
26.95
3.51
Plate tapping
Sit and reach
Sit-ups
Bent arm hanging
– 39 –
E. Cieśla, Z. Domagała, M. Markowska, E. Mleczko, G. Nowak-Starz, A. Przychodni
Table 5. Snedecor’s F distribution in the group of boys for motor abilities and area of living represented by province
Motor abilities
The number of degrees of freedom
F
p
4244
75.329
0.000
3
4284
21.558
0.000
Sit and reach [cm]
3
4298
28.738
0.000
Standing broad jump[cm]
3
4292
25.812
0.000
Sit-ups [n/30 sec]
3
4294
39.854
0.000
Bent arm hanging [sec]
3
4287
28.942
0.000
5 × 10 m shuttle run [sec]
3
4288
48.390
0.000
f1
f2
Flamingo balance [n/1 min]
3
Plate tapping [sec]
average results. The differences between children living in eastern regions of Poland and their counterparts
from Mazowieckie were statistically significant for both
sexes: p ≤ 0.000 (boys) and p ≤ 0.01 (girls) only for
Mazowieckie–Lubelskie configuration. In other tests
of strength, boys and girls living in Podkarpackie (with
low level of GDP per capita and low salary level) obtained slightly better results than their peers from other
regions. In this case location seemed to be important.
Significant differences were proved (p ≤ 0.001) for
abdominal muscles power measured in the groups of
boys in the configurations: Mazowieckie–Podkarpackie
and Mazowieckie–Podlaskie. Considerable differences
in the level of abdominal strength, proved by test of significance, were found in the group of girls for configurations Mazowieckie–Podlaskie (p ≤ 0.01), as well as upper limbs and shoulders strength among seven-year-old
girls from Mazowieckie and Podkarpackie (p ≤ 0.001)
(Tables 4–5). In running speed trial, seven-year-old
girls from Mazowieckie and boys from Podkarpackie
could be characterised by higher level of development
was proved only in the group of boys (critical p-value:
p ≤ 0.001). Taking opposite sex into consideration, the
best average results were obtained by seven-year-old
girls from Podkarpackie Province. The lowest average results were found for both boys and girls living in
Podlaskie. Statistically significant differences were confirmed for girls from Podkarpackie and Mazowieckie
Provinces (p ≤ 0.001). Place of living did not appear
to be discriminant factor for Mazowieckie–Podlaskie
and Mazowieckie–Lubelskie configurations. The measures of strength were taken by three different trials:
standing broad jump, sit-ups performed in specific time
and straight arm hang. It should be stressed that in the
group of seven-year-old girls only explosive strength of
lower limbs, measured through both-leg standing broad
jump, was determined by place of living. Higher average
results were achieved in relation to a social gradient
(Figures 4–6). The best average results were found for
seven-year-old boys from Podkarpackie, whereas their
peers from Mazowieckie Province obtained the lowest
Figure 4. Standing broad jump in comparing groups
Figure 5. Sit-ups in comparing groups
– 40 –
The differences in the level of biological health indicators for 7-year-old children living in different regions of Poland
Table 6. Snedecor’s F distribution in the group of girls for motor abilities and area of living represented by province
Motor abilities
The number of degrees of freedom
F
p
4061
41.062
0.000
3
4102
36.494
0.000
Sit and reach [cm]
3
4108
10.874
0.000
Standing broad jump [cm]
3
4104
6.057
0.000
Sit-ups [n/30 sec]
3
4098
42.370
0.000
Bent arm hanging [sec]
3
4103
20.145
0.000
5 × 10 m shuttle run [sec]
3
4102
68.721
0.000
f1
f2
Flamingo balance [n/1 min]
3
Plate tapping [sec]
ern provinces compared with Mazowieckie. Girls from
Mazowieckie achieved the best results in running speed
test (Tables 4–5).
Discussion
The research study discusses differences in the level of
physical fitness components determined by various regions of Poland in seven-year-old children. It has been
assumed that functional features are sensitive to any
changes in external environment. Additionally, living
conditions including socio-economic factors, created
Figure 6. Bent arm hang in comparing groups
by family environment significantly influence health and
proper development of children [12, 25, 31, 32]. It should
be emphasized that this research does not have many
points of reference, what makes it difficult to analyse
the results. Therefore, publications that refer to conditions determined by place of living (urban or rural area)
have been used to compare the research findings. It
has been concluded that rural areas compared with
urban regions are characterised by lower standard of
living, low rate of people with higher education and high
rate of those with vocational and secondary education
[29, 33].
Figure 7. 5 x 10 m shuttle run in comparing groups
Eastern provinces of Poland are characterised by
decreasing economic potential, stable population and
obtained the best average results, whereas children significantly bigger area compared with other provfrom Lubelskie Province appeared to achieve the low- inces. Along with Warmińsko-Mazurskie Province,
est results (Figure 7). Boys from central Poland ob- they belong to so-called group IV with the lowest rate
tained similar results to their peers from Podlaskie and of GDP per capita [29, 30, 33] and considerably difPodkarpackie Provinces. Significant differences were fer from central provinces in economic and industrial
found only between average results of seven-year-old development. Significantly higher rate of unemploychildren from Mazowieckie in relation to Podkarpackie ment and bigger number of people receiving welProvinces. In the groups of girls, the average results fare assistance have been reported there [29, 33]. It
were significantly different (p ≤ 0.001) in all the east- should be emphasized that the number of towns and
– 41 –
E. Cieśla, Z. Domagała, M. Markowska, E. Mleczko, G. Nowak-Starz, A. Przychodni
cities in Mazowieckie is higher than in each of other
related provinces [29]. Therefore in eastern provinces
of Poland, particularly in Podkarpackie, lower rate of
equivalent family income compared with Mazowieckie
have been reported [33]. The above-mentioned data is
reflected by socio-economic indicators related to families of seven-year-old children (Table 2). This denotes
better intellectual and financial potential in Mazowieckie
Province than in eastern regions of Poland, especially
Podkarpackie. It may be claimed that intellectual potential of adult population from eastern provinces of Poland
is not only underused, but also underpaid. The above
mentioned facts support the hypothesis on significant
disproportions in living conditions, including access to
health care and education facilities, between eastern
and central Poland [29, 33].
It must be stressed that in “the eastern wall” provinces
agriculture and processing industry tend to be the main
sources of income. This situation results in little pollution
and degradation of the environment that significantly
affect conditions for child development. The areas with
little environmental pollution should contribute to proper
development of respiratory and cardiovascular systems.
This could be reflected by better results in tests or trials
related to strength and endurance achieved by children
living in environmentally clean areas compared with their
counterparts from areas exposed to harmful effects of
chemical substances which is proved by the research
involving children and young people from Krakowski
(Cracow) region [34, 35] and adults from Dolny Śląsk
[36]. In this case, Mazowiecki region, more industrialised
and urbanised, would create unfavourable environmental conditions for biological and functional development.
However, Welon and Rogucka’s research [37] prove
a complex mechanism of environmental pollution that
affect human development which is also influenced by
specific biological characteristics and modifying factors
including living conditions, healthy habits, as well as access to health care.
In the research involving seven-year-old children,
the differences in the level of morpho-functional development have been reported in relation to the place of
living. Additionally, significant disproportions in the level
of somatic traits and motor development compared with
population of central Poland have been observed. In most
cases they are statistically significant, particularly in the
group of girls, and with some exceptions, also in the group
of boys. The direction of differences indicates that children from Mazowieckie Province tend to achieve higher
level of development. This phenomenon has been re-
ported for height and speed of limb movement measured
through plate tapping test and shuttle run 10 × 5 m in boys
and girls. In addition, the same direction of diversification
has been found for body mass and explosive strength of
lower limbs in the group of girls, as well as flexibility in
the group of seven-year-old boys. The best results were
achieved in muscular endurance measured through situps in 30 seconds test, straight arm hang and standing
broad jump, as well as in body balance in the group of
boys from Podkarpackie and Podlaskie Provinces.
Similar differences in the level of physical development
of children and young people aged 7–19 were reported by
Przewęda and Dobosz [25]. The differences in the level of
somatic traits development, favourable for children living
in Mazowieckie, are probably caused by socio-economic
disproportions between Warszawa (Warsaw), the largest Polish urbanised area, and other regions of Poland.
A similar situation was reported in the 1970s in relation
to older children [38]. It should be remembered that the
problem of lower level of somatic traits development in
children and young people from eastern regions of Poland
compared with their peers from central Poland has been
already discussed by other authors [39–41].
As mentioned above, the level of some H-RF components (boys’ and girls’ speed of movement and girls’
explosive strength) tends to prove the assumption that
socio-economic factors may affect the level of motor abilities. It is confirmed by the best average results
achieved in Mazowieckie Province where the values of
socio-economic factors that affect families are the highest in Poland. Furthermore, following Przewęda assumption that certain ecological niches create specific system
of independent variables which indirectly affect child
development, it might be claimed that areas of low living standards do not create favourable conditions for development of speed abilities or explosive strength. This
was proved by Zaradkiewicz’s [42] research according
to which children from regions of poor bio-geographical
and socio-economic conditions typically obtained the
lowest results in speed trials. Freitas et al. [43] confirmed
that speed and other components of physical fitness are
strongly related to socio-economic status, particularly in
girls; the higher rate of socio-economic status they had,
the higher level of speed and strength they achieved.
Contrary to the above-mentioned researchers, Peña et
al. [44] revealed higher level of speed abilities among
children living in rural areas. Przewęda and Dobosz [25],
commenting on the speed of movement, also stressed
that the results of boys and girls were better in the regions with relatively poor socio-economic conditions,
– 42 –
The differences in the level of biological health indicators for 7-year-old children living in different regions of Poland
i.e. in Podlaskie and Lubelskie Provinces. However, this
conclusion was drawn in relation to standardized results
of children and young people aged 7–19.
The majority of the research conducted in Poland
proved high level of strength in rural children and young
people. According to Momola [45], pre-school children
from rural areas of Podkarpacki region achieved high
level of arm and shoulder strength. Similar results
were found by Przewęda and Dobosz [25] as well as
Wilczewski [41] for older children. Taking economic
conditions in different regions of Poland and socioeconomic determinants of biological development into
account, it should be emphasized that the phenomenon
discussed above was proved by the research involving
seven-year-old children. It might be also claimed that
the research involving seven-year-old children proved
positive impact of environmentally clean regions and
rural areas on the level of endurance in eastern regions
of Poland reported by Trzcińska [46]. An opposite tendency was reported for the group of Mexican children,
where favourable conditions for strength development
were created by urban environment, even when excluding age and somatic traits parameters [44].
It should be emphasized that the results of flexibility
test, as the fundamental component of H-RF, depend
on body height and length proportions [47]. The value
of flexibility is also determined by the level of strength
achieved in various trials. The tests revealed lower level
of flexibility in persons with higher level of strength [48].
However, seven-year-old children from Podkarpackie
and Mazowieckie Provinces obtained also high average results in abdominal muscular endurance measured
through sit-ups in 30 seconds test. Some of the research
results proved correlation between the level of flexibility and the place of residence. In the research involving Turkish and Polish children, higher level of flexibility
was reported for children living in rural areas [49, 50].
According to Przewęda, however, flexibility measured
for girls is not determined by environmental factors [17].
In the research that involved children and young people
aged 7–19 Przewęda and Dobosz reported different results. The representatives of Lubelskie Province achieved
the highest level of human development, whereas their
counterparts from Mazowieckie and Podkarpackie – the
lowest. In the group of girls aged 7–19, the students from
Podkarpackie obtained high results, whereas those from
Podlaskie performed at low level [25]. This observation
has been proved by the authors’ research.
The majority of the research results prove that higher level of body balance is significantly influenced by
better living conditions created in urban environment.
In the research involving seven-year-old children an
inverse correlation was found. Areas with low socioeconomic parameters and low level of industrialisation create favourable conditions for better development of body balance (e.g. Lublin district). According
to Wilczewski et al. [51], this is urban environment
that creates favourable conditions for better results to
achieve. The level of parents’ education and the number of children in the family also affect body balance
[52]. It must be emphasized that, similarly to physical
fitness components in relation to health, body balance
tends to be correlated with body height and weight [4].
Based on considerations discussed above, it might be
assumed that lower parameters of body height in boys
and girls, as well as low parameters of body mass in
girls and high in boys from eastern regions of Poland
in comparison with children from Mazowieckie enable
them to achieve higher level of body balance.
The research findings revealed the differences in
the level of physical fitness at the stage of progressive
development, particularly the seventh year of life when
children finish pre-school education and begin a new
phase in their lives. The diversification proved by the
research, assuming ethnic homogeneity of the Polish
society, probably results from significant differences in
economic status, number of children and family members, level of parents’ education and unequal access to
education or leisure activities, particularly in rural areas
and small towns. Patterns of health behaviour adopted
from older family members, including parents and siblings, have also considerable influence on physical fitness. Perhaps, relationships with grandparents are also
important. Because of long distance to educational facilities and poor financial conditions of families, especially
those from eastern regions of Poland, grandparents are
primarily involved in upbringing; they shape and develop
eating habits and care for everyday physical activity appropriate to children’s abilities. Constant observation of
the elders as well as imitating their behaviour especially
in the first years of life significantly contribute to appropriate and optimal use of physical potential and prevent children from excessive body weight and obesity. Therefore,
it is important that older family members initiate different
forms of physical activity, especially those involving accuracy, speed and various aspects of body coordination.
If a family lacks of physical activity, approves spending
long hours watching TV or playing computer games since
early childhood, physical potential of the child develops
inadequately to his/her needs and abilities.
– 43 –
E. Cieśla, Z. Domagała, M. Markowska, E. Mleczko, G. Nowak-Starz, A. Przychodni
Conclusion
It should be also stressed that in spite of better natural
conditions created by smaller environments, a specific
profile of fitness emerging in early school years on the
threshold of school education is still noticeable. It is
characterised by higher level of speed and body coordination abilities in children from well-off regions and
higher level of endurance in children from poor areas of
Poland which has been already reported. It is probable
that lack of possibilities to compensate socio-economic
disproportions in Polish regions along with bad habits
related to physical fitness will decrease chances to improve physical fitness of young generation.
Acknowledgements
The research results are integral part of the national
research project “Six-year-old child on the threshold of
school education” co-financed by European Union within European Social Fund as well as Ministry of National
Education in Poland (No. 5/2.1a/2004/2937).
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NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
INFLUENCE OF TWO-YEAR NON-FORMAL PHYSICAL
EDUCATION PROGRAM ON HEALTH-RELATED
PHYSICAL FITNESS OF 11–13 YEARS OLD CHILDREN
WPŁYW REALIZACJI DWULETNIEGO PROGRAMU ZAJĘĆ
POZALEKCYJNYCH Z WYCHOWANIA FIZYCZNEGO
NA SPRAWNOŚĆ FIZYCZNĄ DZIECI W WIEKU 11–13 LAT
Asta Šarkauskienė*
* PhD, Department of Physical Education, Klaipėda University, Klaipėda, Lithuania
Keywords: non-formal physical education, 11–13 years old children, health-related physical fitness
Słowa kluczowe: pozalekcyjne wychowanie fizyczne, dzieci w wieku 11–13 lat, sprawność fizyczna
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Aim of the study. The study was aimed to determine the influence of two-year non-formal physical education program on health-related physical fitness of 11–13 years old children.
Material and methods. The target sample was made up of pupils from grades 5–6 (n = 239). Considering
their previous participation in non-formal physical education (NFPE) activities, the participants from the experimental and control groups were appointed to one of three subgroups: E1 and C1, E2 and C2, E3 and C3. The
subgroups were formed according to the following criteria: the children, who regularly participated in NFPE
in their secondary school (E1, C1); the ones, who participated in NFPE outside school, being only indirectly
involved in NFPE in school to participate in organized sport and fitness activities (E2, C2); and those who were
only indirectly involved in NFPE in school to participate in organized sport and fitness activities (E3, C3).
Our two-year study was carried out with the help of various methods, such as pedagogical experiment,
document analysis, testing, statistical analysis. Training methods and forms for activating children were also
employed. NFPE content integrally developed the knowledge, abilities and attitudes of physical health, physical activity, physical development and physical fitness of participants. At the beginning, in the middle and at
the end of the experiment the focus groups conducted four health-related physical fitness tests: sit and reach,
sit-ups, flexed-arm hang, 1 mile walk/run.
Results. Group E1 girls’ indices of three tests and group E1 boys’ indices of four tests were statistically significantly (p < 0.05) higher than in children from group C1. Group E2 girls’ and boys’ indices of three tests were
statistically significantly (p < 0.05) higher than in children from group C2. Group E3 girls’ indices of three tests
and boys’ indices of one test were statistically significantly (p < 0.05) higher than in children from group C3.
Conclusion. The experiment has demonstrated that non-formal education content, formulated and implemented this way, was useful for uniting and integrally developing the knowledge, abilities and attitudes of
participants. It exerted positive influence on health-related physical fitness of children, who participated in
non-formal physical education in school (group E1) as well as on those, who only partly experienced the influence of non-formal physical education in school (groups E2 and E3).
Cel pracy. Ustalenie wpływu treści realizowanego w ciągu dwu lat programu pozalekcyjnego kształcenia
fizycznego na sprawność fizyczną dzieci w wieku 11–13 lat.
– 47 –
Asta Šarkauskienė
Materiał i metody. Badaniem objęto 239 dzieci. Biorąc pod uwagę wcześniejsze uczestnictwo w pozalekcyjnych zajęciach z wychowania fizycznego, uczniów z eksperymentalnych oraz kontrolnych grup przydzielono do
jednej z trzech podgrup: E1 i K1, E2 i K2, E3 i K3, obejmujących uczniów, którzy stale uczestniczyli w pozalekcyjnych
zajęciach z wychowania fizycznego w szkole (E1 i K1); uczniów, którzy uczestniczyli w pozalekcyjnych zajęciach
z wychowania fizycznego poza szkołą, a także brali udział w szkolnych imprezach sportowych i rekreacyjnych (E2
i K2); uczniów, którzy brali udział jedynie w szkolnych imprezach sportowych i rekreacyjnych (E3 i K3).
Zastosowano eksperyment pedagogiczny, analizę dokumentów, testowanie, analizę statystyczną; wdrożono również metody i formy nauczania aktywizujące dzieci. Eksperyment pedagogiczny trwał dwa lata. Treści
programowe dobrano w taki sposób, żeby konsekwentnie rozwijać wiedzę uczniów, ich umiejętności i postawę.
Na początku, w połowie i pod koniec badań przeprowadzono cztery testy diagnozujące sprawność fizyczną
uczestników, tj. ćwiczenia z siadania i wyciągania się, skłony w leżeniu, zwisy, chód/bieg na 1 milę.
Wyniki. Wyniki trzech testów dziewczynek z grupy E1 oraz wyniki czterech testów chłopców z grupy E1 były
znacząco statystycznie istotnie (p < 0,05) wyższe od wyników młodszych nastolatków z grupy K1. Wskaźniki
trzech testów grupy dziewczynek oraz chłopców z grupy E2 były statystycznie znacząco (p < 0,05) wyższe niż
uzyskane przez uczniów z grupy K2. Wskaźniki trzech testów grupy dziewczynek E3, a chłopców – jednego testu
były statystycznie znacząco (p < 0,05) wyższe niż uzyskane przez uczniów z grupy K3.
Wnioski. Badanie wykazało pozytywny wpływ sformułowanej treści kształcenia na sprawność fizyczną nie
tylko nastolatków, którzy stale uczestniczyli w kształceniu fizycznym, realizowanym w szkole (grupa E1), ale także
tych uczniów, którzy jedynie częściowo (grupy E2 oraz E3) doświadczyli wpływu tego kształcenia.
Introduction
The results of empirical research have revealed that
physical fitness of children between the ages of eleven
to thirteen is insufficient [1–2] and has a tendency to
decrease [3–5]. Physical fitness is conditioned by genetic, environmental and psychological factors. Aware
that ability to develop particular power, quickness and
endurance are influenced by genetic factors, most scientists [6–9] have emphasized that it cannot prevent
children from participating in physical activity, pointing
out at the same time that all individuals, if taking regular
trainings, can improve their physical fitness despite existing genetic differences.
Education process (formal and non-formal) is referred to environmental factors. Learning process that
takes place during formal education and in training systems is traditionally more visible and better recognised.
In recent years, however, we have observed growing
appreciation of learning in non-formal settings [10].
The approach towards non-formal physical education
(NFPE) in European countries reveals evident differences, and varies in such issues as: official position in
non-formal education, juridical regulation and administration, relation to formal education, scientific information, material provision, etc. In different European countries even distinct words are used to describe more or
less the same activities i.e.: “non-formal education”,
“out of class education”, “extra-curricular education”,
“additional education”, etc. [11].
In Lithuania NFPE is organized inside and outside school. NFPE in school, defined as “non-struc-
tural, organized, purposeful after school physical
education” [12], is still understood narrowly and one-sidedly, i.e. oriented towards teaching and development of the motion and training of physical qualities.
Curriculum content is focused on upcoming sport
events.
Numerous Lithuanian scientists suggest that both
the content and organization of NFPE in school should
be reformed. While V. Blauzdys, D. Šinkūnienė [13] offer implementation of various sports competitions involving school community as a whole, L. Trinkūnienė et
al. [14] conclude on the basis of empiric research results
that such activity is especially useful for pupils with lower
level of physical fitness and recommend finding new
ways to involve those children into the process of NFPE
in school.
The issue of NFPE has been also discussed by
non-Lithuanian researchers, such as A.L. Carel et al.
[15], who suggest organizing lifestyle-focused activities
like walking, games, station-based activities and snowshoeing. B. Wnek [16] presents education content that
includes physical fitness activities, skills, games, and
rhythm and dance activities, each of them based on
a specific holiday or seasonal theme.
In present study the following research question
was formulated: Which program of NFPE in school can
positively influence health-related physical fitness of
11–13 years old children?
The purpose of the study was to determine the influence of two-year non-formal physical education program on health-related physical fitness of children aged
11–13 years.
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Influence of two-year non-formal physical education program on health-related physical fitness...
Material and methods
Subjects
The target sample was formed of pupils from grades
5–6 (n = 239) including 123 girls (51.5%) and 116 boys
(48.5%). The results achieved by young male and female participants were analyzed separately.
Organization of the study
The aforementioned two-year study was carried out in
four secondary schools of Klaipėda, selected with the
use of criterion method. Students from two schools
were assigned to the experimental group E (n = 119)
(Fig. 1); students from other two schools were assigned
to the control group C (n = 120).
Taking into consideration students’ previous participation in NFPE in school, location and frequency, the
individuals from experimental and control groups were
assigned to E1 and C1, E2 and C2, E3 and C3 groups under the regulation listed below:
1) E1, C1 – children, who regularly participated in NFPE
in their secondary school;
2) E2, C2 – children, who participated in NFPE outside school, having been only indirectly involved
in NFPE in school to participate in organized sport
and fitness activities;
3) E3, C3 – children, who were only indirectly involved
in NFPE in school to participate in organized sport
and fitness activities.
Both experimental and control groups shared the
duration (1 hour) and frequency (twice a week) but they
were different in their education programs.
The experimental group (E) implemented the program designed by the author of the article. The content
of the program included various sport and agility games,
relay races, athletics, and gymnastics. The following
principles were considered: willingness to volunteer,
accessibility, relevance, and individualization; different
School 1
activating methods, such as discussion, case study,
brain hedgehog, arguments for and against, brainstorm,
learning in groups, etc., were applied as well. Education
content was implemented during sport activities and in
various sport and wellness events (sport and wellness
festivals, competitions, quizzes, trips). 80% of the training content consisted of sport activities and 20% of various sport and fitness events.
The control group (C) worked according to NFPE
programs written by PE teachers and approved by
school directors under the Lithuanian Olympic Festival
regulations.
Priorities of the experimental group:
1) integral growth of physical development, physical
activity, physical fitness, and health;
2) integration with children with lower level of health
and physical fitness;
3) content corresponding to the needs and preferences of children;
4) methods and forms activating and training individual
development process.
1)
2)
3)
4)
Priorities of the control group:
teaching and development of the motion action;
physical qualities training;
training of the most physically capable pupils;
curriculum content focused on upcoming sport
events.
By means of pedagogical experiment the influence
of the two-year NFPE program on the physical health,
physical development and physical fitness of children
aged 11–13 years was identified. The results of the
pedagogical experiment in significant part are presented here, i.e. the issues concerning the influence of
NFPE program on the health-related physical fitness of
children at the 11–13 years of age.
Based on such methods as pedagogical experiment, document analysis, testing, statistical analysis, the above-mentioned two-year pedagogical ex-
School 2
School 3
Experimental group (E) (n = 119)
School 4
Control group (C) (n = 120)
Figure 1. Distribution of schools
– 49 –
Asta Šarkauskienė
periment was carried out at two Klaipėda secondary
schools. Non-formal education activities were held at
the end of formal education twice a week. Activity duration – 1 hour. Document analysis: after applying this
method, arithmetic mean of pupils’ age was calculated. The mean age was 11.3 years in research I, 11.9
years in research II and 12.9 years in research III. The
tests were carried out at the beginning (2007-10/11),
in the middle (2008-05) and at the end (2009-05) of
pedagogical experiment. The focus groups performed
four health-related physical fitness tests: sit and reach
(lower back flexibility), sit-ups (abdominal muscle power
and endurance), flexed-arm hang (upper body strength
and endurance) and 1 mile walk/run (aerobic fitness).
After that statistical analysis – the calculation of arithmetic mean (x), standard deviation (Sx) and Student’s
t-test – were made.
Results
After the research I, it was identified that the average
results of physical fitness of male and female groups
E1 and C1, E2 and C2, E3 and C3 did not reveal statistically significant differences, i.e. groups were homogeneous and met the essential condition – experiment
reliability.
Female results and changes in physical fitness
The results revealed that during the research period
the girls from group E1 significantly (p < 0.05) improved
their indicators of flexibility (sit and reach), muscle power and endurance (sit-ups), and aerobic fitness (1 mile
walk/run) (Table 1).
The indices in girls from group E2 of upper body
strength and endurance, and aerobic fitness were
estimated as statistically significant (p < 0.05). In the
indices of group E3 concerning flexibility and aerobic fitness a significant (p < 0.05) change was observed.
Control group C1 did not reveal statistically significant improvements in results achieved during these two
academic years (Table 2).
Statistically significant changes in results achieved
during this two-year period did not emerge in other control groups (C2 and C3) as well. However, it was determined that abdominal muscle strength and endurance,
and aerobic fitness indices of group C3 declined significantly (p < 0.05). Upper body strength and endurance
of group C2 also declined significantly (p < 0.05).
At the end of our two-year experiment the outcomes
of groups E1 and C1 (research I and research III) were
compared, and the results revealed significant (p < 0.05)
differences indicating flexibility (sit and reach), abdomi-
Table 1. The change of physical fitness indicators of the female group E1 during the educational experiment: the arithmetic mean (x),
standard deviation (S), Student‘s t-test (t)
Research
Statistical
indicators
Sit and reach
(cm)
Sit-ups
(N/30 sec)
Flexed-arm hang
(ms)
1 mile walk/run
(sec)
I
–
x
22.45
24.55
60.91
685.09
S
4.34
3.42
47.84
60.26
–
x
24.27
26.45
98.55
638.09
S
6.31
3.70
105.73
46.34
–
x
27.00
28.64
104.36
582.36
S
5.16
2.58
86.96
67.82
t
–1.500
–2.313
–1.105
5.663
p
0.165
0.043*
0.295
0.000***
t
–2.947
–2.667
–0,614
3.926
p
0.015*
0.024*
0.553
0.003**
t
–4.048
–4.451
–1.569
9.270
p
0.002**
0.001***
0.148
0.000***
II
III
I–II
II–III
I–III
Note. * p<0.05; ** p<0.01; ***p<0.001
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Influence of two-year non-formal physical education program on health-related physical fitness...
Table 2. The change of physical fitness indicators of the female group C1 during the pedagogical experiment: the arithmetic mean (x),
standard deviation (S), Student‘s t-test (t)
Research
Statistical
indicators
Sit and reach
(cm)
Sit-ups
(N/30 sec)
Flexed-arm hang
(ms)
1 mile walk/run
(sec)
I
–
x
20.18
23.00
74.36
694.55
S
4.49
3.72
62.14
74.55
–
x
18.91
21.82
166.00
695.36
S
6.16
5.27
171.77
109.77
–
x
17.82
23.55
127.27
694.82
S
5.10
3.75
157.49
153.82
t
0.730
0.975
–2.236
–0.060
p
0.482
0.353
0.049*
0.953
t
0.444
–1.440
2.460
–0.035
p
0.667
0.180
0.034*
0.973
t
1.248
–0.554
–1.529
–0.011
p
0.240
0.592
0.157
0.992
II
III
I–II
II–III
I–III
Note. * p<0.05; ** p<0.01; ***p<0.001
Table 3. Differences of physical fitness indices in experimental and control group girls (study III)
Groups
E1:C1
E2:C2
E3:C3
Statistical
indicators
Sit and reach
(cm)
Sit-ups
(N/30 sec)
Flexed-arm hang
(ms)
1 mile walk/run
(sec)
t
4.200
3.709
–0.422
–2.150
p
0.000***
0.002**
0.677
0.044*
t
0.339
2.216
2.368
–4.376
p
0.739
0.042*
0.026*
0.000***
t
2.089
3.719
1.859
–8.840
p
0.040*
0.000***
0.067
0.000***
Note. * p<0.05; ** p<0.01; ***p<0.001
nal muscle power and endurance (sit-ups) as well as
aerobic fitness (1 mile walk/run) (Table 3). The indices
of girls from group E2 referring to abdominal muscle
power and endurance, upper body strength and endurance, and aerobic fitness were significantly (p < 0.05)
higher than these of girls from group C2. In group E3 the
female indices of flexibility, abdominal muscle power
and endurance, and aerobic fitness were significantly
(p < 0.05) higher than those of girls from group C3.
Male results and changes in physical capacity
Analyzing the changes in physical abilities of boys assigned to group E1, it was determined that during this
two-year period the following performance indicators
improved significantly (p < 0.05): flexibility (sit and
reach), abdominal muscle strength and endurance (situps), and aerobic fitness (1 mile walk/run) (Table 4).
Changes in physical fitness in boys from groups E2 and
– 51 –
Asta Šarkauskienė
Table 4. The change in physical fitness indicators of the E1 male group during the pedagogical experiment: the arithmetic mean (x),
standard deviation (S), Student‘s t-test (t)
Research
Statistical
indicators
Sit and reach
(cm)
Sit-ups
(N/30 sec)
Flexed-arm hang
(ms)
1 mile walk/run
(sec)
I
–
x
15.94
26.11
161.11
591.94
S
5.91
4.48
124.04
68.48
–
x
16.83
26.28
144.61
564.17
S
6.82
5.37
119.78
66.70
–
x
19.94
28.3
183.83
532.39
S
4.71
3.94
140.13
76.49
t
–1.230
–0.266
1.018
3.981
p
0.235
0.794
0.323
0.001***
t
–3.831
–3.050
–1.662
3.981
p
0.001***
0.007**
0.115
0.001***
t
–4.614
–3.688
–1.130
9.204
p
0.000***
0.002**
0.274
0.000***
II
III
I–II
II–III
I–III
Note. * p<0.05; ** p<0.01; ***p<0.001
Table 5. The change in physical fitness indicators of the C1 male group during the pedagogical experiment: the arithmetic mean (x),
standard deviation (S), Student‘s t-test (t)
Research
Statistical
indicators
Sit and reach
(cm)
Sit-ups
(N/30 sec)
Flexed-arm hang
(ms)
1 mile walk/run
(sec)
I
–
x
17.00
28.00
145.45
598.64
S
4.49
2.61
90.48
38.09
–
x
15.36
25.00
183.09
625.73
S
3.64
3.26
168.72
74.11
–
x
13.82
24.09
84.09
657.05
S
5.23
5.05
38.65
137.05
t
1.063
2.331
–0.734
–1.752
p
0.313
0.042*
0.480
0.110
t
1.132
0.470
1.921
–1.202
p
0.284
0.648
0.084
0.257
t
2.232
2.068
2.090
–1.877
p
0.050*
0.065
0.063
0.090
II
III
I–II
II–III
I–III
Note. * p<0.05; ** p<0.01; ***p<0.001
E3 proceeded similarly: abdominal muscle strength and
endurance, and aerobic fitness indices improved statistically significantly (p < 0.05).
Meanwhile, no statistically significant improvements
were observed in control group. Physical performance
of boys, who attended NFPE in school (C1), slightly
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Influence of two-year non-formal physical education program on health-related physical fitness...
Table 6. Differences of physical fitness indices in experimental and control group boys (study III)
Groups
E1:C1
E2:C2
E3:C3
Statistical
indicators
Sit and reach
(cm)
Sit-ups
(N/30 sec)
Flexed-arm hang (ms)
1 mile walk/run (sec)
t
3.177
2.379
2.848
–2.770
p
0.005**
0.029*
0.010**
0.015*
t
0.069
3.414
2.504
–4.286
p
0.945
0.002**
0.017*
0.000***
t
0.517
1.979
1.560
–4.564
p
0.608
0.058
0.133
0.000***
Note. * p<0.05; ** p<0.01; ***p<0.001
went down and brought statistically significant negative
results in flexibility (p < 0.05) (Table 5).
Statistically significant changes of results increase
did not occur in control groups C2 and C3 as well.
Despite the improvement in particular results of boys
from groups C2 and C3, statistically significant changes
did not emerge. It should be noted that aerobic fitness
indices of boys from groups C2 and C3 decreased significantly (p < 0.05).
The results of the research III conducted on groups
E1 and C1 revealed significant (p < 0.05) indicator differences in flexibility (sit and reach), abdominal muscle
power and endurance (sit-ups), upper body strength
and endurance (flexed-arm hang), and aerobic fitness
(1 mile walk/run) (Table 6).
The indices of boys assigned to E2 group referring
to their abdominal muscle power and endurance, upper body strength and endurance, and aerobic fitness
were statistically significantly (p < 0.05) higher than in
boys from C2 group. In case of boys from E3 group the
indices of aerobic fitness were statistically significantly
(p < 0.05) higher than in boys from C3 group.
Discussion
Pondering the flexibility of fifth- and sixth-graders, we
have estimated that during our two-year research the
flexibility of girls and boys assigned to experimental
groups, who constantly participated in NFPE in school
(group E1), increased the most. The difference in girls’
flexibility indices between study I and study III results
were on average 4.55 cm, p = 0.01 and in boys’ – 4.0
cm, p = 0.01. The flexibility indices of male and female
participants assigned to control groups (except for girls,
who participated in NFPE outside school) at the end of
the research were lower than at the beginning.
The researchers, after having accomplished flexibility measurements conducted on pupils at this age,
stated that the 11–13 age bracket is favorable to train
this physical ability. It was in accordance with S.V.
Frolov and S.S. Frolov [17] opinion based on the results
of longitudinal physical fitness research on pupils attending 1st–11th grades, pursued since 1985, that pupils’
flexibility indices had tendency to grow statistically significantly in 5th grade.
Other important component of health-related physical fitness is cardio-respiratory system endurance,
valued as the most important physiological index for
good health and physical state by NASPE [18]. D.L.
Gallahue, J.C. Ozmun [19] and J.F. Kuramšin [20] indicate that age range 11–13 is very favorable to train
aerobic endurance. After having considered scientists’
conclusions and recommendations, special attention
was paid to increase in young adolescents’ aerobic fitness. The research results have proved the effectiveness of applied means: in all experimental groups the
aerobic fitness indices of pupils of both sexes improved
significantly (p < 0.001) and were significantly (p < 0.05)
higher than in control groups.
Muscle power and endurance form an important
component of physical fitness evaluation. In our research muscle power and endurance were estimated
with the help of sit-ups and flexed-arm hang tests.
The indices of sit-ups test reflected the power and
endurance of abdominal muscles. We found the similar growth in indices of abdominal muscle power and
endurance of children assigned to experimental during
both years, and, during two research years, the changes of the indices of sit-ups test in experimental groups
of both sexes were significant (p < 0.01). It should be
also noted that in all experimental groups (except for
group E3 formed of boys, who did not constantly partici-
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Asta Šarkauskienė
pate in NFPE in school) the indices were higher than
those of control group.
Although the specialist in the field have proved that
the indices of abdominal muscle power and endurance
grew in early adolescence, since vague age criterion
a solid opinion on the issue has not been worked out
yet. Basing on R.M. Malina, C. Bouchard, O. Bar-Or
[21] empirical statement, girls’ abdominal muscles power and endurance natural growth increase steadily till
14 years of age and stabilize after that, in case of boys
– steadily grow till the age of 6–13 and then sudden
spurt occurs. According to the data collected by O.V.
Matiščin [22], the indices of the sit-ups test particularly
increase in girls of age 11 and 13 and in boys of age 13.
However H. Yagüe, J.M. De La Fuente [23] indicate that
abdomen muscle power and endurance indices leap is
higher than height spurt, i.e. for girls till age 11–12, for
boys – 13–15. Our research brought the same results
as the data received by D.N. Gavrilov, A.V. Malinin,
M.A. Savenko [24], V. Blauzdys, L. Bagdonienė [1] and
proved that this age bracket is favorable for training abdomen muscle power and endurance.
During this two-year research period the increase
in indices of experimental groups of girls and boys, who
participated in NFPE in school (E1), was observed in
only one test (flexed-arm hang), however significant differences did not emerge. R.M. Malina, C. Bouchard,
O. Bar-Or [21] stated that upper body strength and
endurance at this period of life grow fractionally. This
conclusion proved the results of research conducted
by V. Blauzdys, L. Bagdonienė [1] and preformed on
Lithuanian 5th–6th graders of the same age [3]. It was
estimated that however indices improved, statistically
significant changes did not appear.
The analysis of theoretical and empirical researches on health-related physical fitness of 11–13 years
old children revealed the improvement in the level of
physical fitness due to harmonic influence of genetic
and environment conditions together with deterioration in results of flexibility and aerobic fitness of control
groups. The analysis aimed at possible explanations of
these changes require additional researches. One of
the assumptions is that in control groups main focus
should be shifted from improving speed and agility towards flexibility and aerobic fitness.
Conclusion
Being aware that non-formal education content should
be formulated, implemented and united with integrally
developed knowledge, abilities and attitudes, we developed our two-year study with the help of training methods and forms for activating children. All these factors
positively influenced health-related fitness of children
who both participated in non-formal physical education
two-year program in school (group E1) and who only
partly experienced the influence of non-formal physical
education in school (groups E2 and E3).
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[12] Sarkauskiene A. 2011. Jaunųjų pauglių prigimtinių fizinių
galių neformalusis ugdymas mokykloje [Innate physical
abilities in teenagers and non-formal education in school].
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[13] Blauzdys V, Šinkūnienė D: Mokinių papildomo fizinio
ugdymo plėtra mokykloje [Further development of students and physical education]. Vilnius, VPU, 2005.
[14] Trinkūnienė L et al.: Papildomo fizinio aktyvumo pratybų
poveikis silpno fizinio pajėgumo mergaitėms [Non-formal
physical activity: low-impact exercises for girls]. Ugdymas
Kūno kultūra Sportas, 2009; 4 (75): 86–91.
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school children. Journal of Physical Education and Sports
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подхода в физической подготовке школьников [Specificity of advanced approach to physical education in
students]. Физическая культура: воспитание, образование, тренировка [Physical Culture: Education, Training,
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[23] Yahüe H, De la Fuente JM: Changes in height and motor
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[24] Gavrilov DN, Malinin AB Savenko MA: Динамика показателей физическогo состояния школьников города
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NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
REACTIONS OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
DURING PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASSES IN FIRST
GRADE PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN
REAKCJE UKŁADU KRĄŻENIA W CZASIE LEKCJI
WYCHOWANIA FIZYCZNEGO U UCZNIÓW PIERWSZEJ
KLASY SZKOŁY PODSTAWOWEJ
Paweł Chmura*, Andrzej Rokita**,
Marek Popowczak***, Ireneusz Cichy****
**** MA, assistant, Faculty of Team Sports Games of University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland
**** Professor, PhD, manager, Faculty of Team Sports Games of University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw,
Poland
***** PhD, lecturer, Faculty of Team Sports Games of University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland
***** PhD, lecturer, Faculty of Team Sports Games of University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland
Key words: early school education, physical activity, heart rate, effort intensity, Polar Team 2 System
Słowa kluczowe: edukacja wczesnoszkolna, aktywność fizyczna, częstość akcji serca, intensywność
wysiłku, Polar Team 2 System
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Aim of the study. Our study was aimed at the analysis of heart rate in school children aged 7 years in
connection with the reaction of the circulatory system to running games employed during physical education
classes.
Material and methods. Our research was comprised of a group of 100 pupils aged 7 years attending first
grade in primary school. During physical education classes, we registered heart rate by means of the Team
2 System of the Polar Company. Five subsequent games of a running nature were introduced. Between the
particular games, there was a 1-minute break each time for regeneration. Prior to the research, written consent
of the participants’ parents was obtained. All the children had valid current medical certificates.
Results. The maximum average heart rate, amounting to 192.2 ± 14.5 beat/min, was observed during the
15th minute of the physical education class. In the cross-section of the first 3 games, we observed a significant
increase (P ≤ 0.001) of heart rate in relation to the rest value. The applied physical load in the next 2 games
brought about a decrease of the studied index. The lowest average heart rate, amounting to 142.6 ± 16.8 beat/
min, was registered during the break between the third and the fourth games.
Conclusions. The conducted research showed a large changeability of intensity of effort during the implementation of the particular running games. This was proven by the sinusoidal course of heart rate. The highest
average value of heart rate occurred during the third game, which can indicate the maximum stimulation of
the cardiovascular system. The recreation processes after the first 3 running games are similar to one another,
but after the completion of the fourth one they distinctly slow down, which may indicate the growing fatigue
of the participants.
Cel pracy. Analiza częstości skurczów serca u siedmioletnich dzieci, jako reakcja układu krążenia na zabawy
ruchowe o charakterze bieżnym w czasie zajęć z wychowania fizycznego.
– 57 –
Paweł Chmura, Andrzej Rokita, Marek Popowczak, Ireneusz Cichy
Materiał i metody. Badaniem objęto grupę 100 siedmiolatków, uczniów pierwszej klasy szkoły podstawowej.
W trakcie zajęć z wychowania fizycznego rejestrowano częstość skurczów serca za pomocą urządzenia Polar Team
2 System firmy Polar w czasie pięciu kolejnych zabaw o charakterze bieżnym. Po każdej zabawie zastosowano
1-minutową przerwę w celu regeneracji organizmu. Badanie poprzedziło uzyskanie pisemnej zgody rodziców
uczestniczących w nim dzieci. Wszyscy uczniowie mieli również aktualne zaświadczenia lekarskie.
Wyniki. Maksymalną średnią częstość skurczów serca, czyli 192,2 ± 14,5 uderzeń/min, stwierdzono w piętnastej minucie zajęć. Podczas pierwszych 3 gier odnotowano znaczący wzrost (P ≤ 0,001) skurczów serca w stosunku
do wartości spoczynkowej. Zastosowane obciążenia fizyczne w kolejnych dwu zabawach spowodowały spadek
badanego parametru. Najniższą średnią częstość skurczów serca, tj. 142,6 ± 16,8 uderzeń/min, zarejestrowano
podczas przerwy między trzecią i czwartą zabawą.
Wnioski. Przeprowadzone badania wykazały dużą zmienność intensywności wysiłku w czasie poszczególnych
zabaw o charakterze bieżnym. Świadczy o tym sinusoidalny przebieg zmian częstości skurczów serca uczestników badania. Najwyższą średnią wartość uderzeń serca odnotowano w trzeciej zabawie, co może wskazywać na
maksymalną stymulację układu sercowo-naczyniowego. Tempo procesów regeneracyjnych po pierwszych trzech
zabawach o charakterze bieżnym było do siebie podobne, ale po zakończeniu czwartej zabawy bieżnej zachodziło
wyraźnie wolniej, to zaś mogłoby świadczyć o rosnącym zmęczeniu uczestników.
Introduction
In our times, human beings attach more and more significance to being healthy and competent for a long
time. More and more frequently we appreciate physical activity as an indispensable element influencing the
quality of our lives. Those of us who on a regular basis
improve fitness by swimming, running, or practicing other sports have fewer health problems. Also, our level of
self-assessment is higher, we look positively into the future, and we are happier than other persons of the same
age. It seems that the formation of appropriate physical
habits at a young age shall pay off in older age.
Parents want their children to develop well. The
recent dynamic developments of modern technologies and computerization of virtually every domain of
life contributes to the fact that especially children and
young people spend more and more time in front of
TVs or computers, much more than the amount of time
they devote to active relaxation in the open air. On the
one hand, it can result in unattractive forms of spending free time as proposed by the parents, while on the
other hand, there is little interest in developing physical activity and formation of appropriate pro-health
customs. This is also connected to the fact that kindergartens and schools are attended by children whose
physical skills are much worse than several years ago.
Additionally, children’s activity is adversely influenced
by sedentary behavior and their need for spontaneous
movement, which decreases with age. In accordance
with new criteria, school children and youth ought to
engage in moderate and high intensity effort exercise
for 60 minutes per day in a form that is adjusted to their
developmental stage and that is diverse and constitutes
a source of joy [1]. Results of research by Przewęda
and Dobosz [2] carried out in the years 1979–1999 in
numerous groups of children and youth (aged 7.5–19.5
years) in Poland indicate a visible regress of physical
fitness and physical efficiency with youth.
In an attempt to prevent this phenomenon from developing and to make children attending first grades in
the integrated education better absorb new information in
the educational process, we employed the research project “Educational balls – edubal,” by Rokita and Rzepa.
Based on this project, the University School of Physical
Education in Wrocław introduced classes aimed at familiarizing future teachers with educational balls. These balls
contribute to the development of children’s skills in the
scope of simple mathematical operations and basic issues of the Polish language. They teach how to apply the
acquired knowledge in practice, think creatively, and they
also motivate youth to engage in physical activity [3, 4].
Play (including playing with balls) accompanies
a human being beginning in early childhood. It does
not only add colour to life, but also introduces joy, relaxation, and motivates one to make an effort. It also
supports the general physical and mental development
of a child and triggers his/her spontaneous activity. As
early as during early school education, i.e. in grades
I–III, we can observe diverse behavior in children.
Some of them are eager to cooperate and actively seek
partners to play with. Some do not show any initiative
and passively look at other children. Borecka-Biernat
and Węgłowska-Rzepa [5] determined and described
styles of functioning in a group, i.e. managing style, cooperating style, subordinating style, withdrawing style
and destructive style, as relatively constant behaviors
of persons during the performance of mobile activities.
– 58 –
Reactions of the cardiovascular system during physical education classes in first grade primary school children
School education ought to ensure the extensive development of a child by carrying out tasks in the scope of
acquisition of knowledge and skills in a harmonious and
comprehensive way. Is this so in reality? In this study
we shall attempt to answer a few key questions.
This study was aimed at analyzing heart rate in first
grade primary school children in connection with the
reaction of the circulatory system on running games
employed during physical education classes as well as
answering the following questions:
1. What is the reaction of the cardiovascular system to
the applied running games?
2. What is the maximum heart rate reached by children during the particular games?
3. What is the dynamics of restitution processes upon
completion of each running game?
Research material
Our research comprised a group of 100 pupils attending
first grades of the following primary schools: Primary
School No. 1 and Primary School No. 2 in Wołów. The
children participated in physical education classes in
accordance with the class scenario previously agreed
upon by the teacher. The participants were aged 7
years (born in 2003). Their body weight ranged from
18 kg to 45 kg, and their height ranged from 114 cm to
143 cm. Prior to the research, written consent of the
participants’ parents was obtained. All the children had
valid current medical certificates.
Research method
During physical education classes we registered heart
rate by means of the Team 2 System of the Polar
Company. Recording the data from all the transmitters took place wirelessly and in real time to the base
station from which the information was recorded on
the computer upon completion of the class. The class
time was 45 minutes; however, due to organizational
issues – special belts had to be put on each child with
the purpose of transmitting activity potentials of heart
rate – the effective time of measuring the effort intensity was 27 minutes. The project, which assumed the
realization of pilot research, took place every month
from September 2010 through February 2011 (before
the research proper, the same class scenario was conducted 6 times). During the first class, an employee of
the University School of Physical explained the previously agreed upon class scenario to the children and
the particular class tutors. The program of a lesson unit
comprised 5 running games, and it was consistent with
the principles of lesson plans. The research proper was
carried out in March 2011.
Course of research
The research examinations were started with a 3-minute measurement of heart rate at rest in a cross-legged
squat position. The lowest value of the examined index was taken for the analysis. Each part of the class
was started by the teacher with introductory exercises:
a 1-minute trot around the classroom and 1 minute of
gymnastics performed in the same place. Next, 5 subsequent games of a running nature were introduced, i.e.
Little Tail, Avalanche Tag, Bewitched Tag, Tag with Ball,
Tag in Pairs [6]. Each game lasted 3 minutes. After the
first, second, third and fourth games were completed,
there was a 1-minute break each time during which the
teacher explained the rules of the next game. In the
last part of the class scenario, which lasted 3 minutes,
the monitored children performed breathing exercises
while marching and, afterwards, while sitting.
The registered research results were subject to
basic mathematical and statistical analysis that determined arithmetical mean, standard deviation, as well as
minimum and maximum values.
Research results
During the first 3 minutes of the physical education
class, the lowest average value of heart rate was
103.3 ± 13.0 (Figure 1). At the initial part, we registered
during the trot the significant (P ≤ 0.001) increase of
HR to the value of 176.9 ± 16.5 beat/min, and then
during the gymnastic exercises there was a decline to
143.9 ± 17.6.
During the main part – when the running play character of the class was realized – we observed a large
changeability of cardiac muscle work. In the cross section
of the first 3 games we noticed a significant increase (P ≤
0.001) of heart rate in relation to the rest value. Towards
the end of the first game, “Tag Little Tail,” the examined
variable amounted to 187.0 ± 16.1; in the second one,
“Tag Avalanche,” it was 189.1 ± 17.5; in the third one,
“Tag Bewitched,” 190.7 ± 15.1. The maximum mean value of HR, 192.2 ± 14.5, was observed during the second
minute of the third game. The highest HR max amounted
to 215 beat/min, and the lowest 144 beat/min. The physical load applied in the next 2 games brought about a de-
– 59 –
Paweł Chmura, Andrzej Rokita, Marek Popowczak, Ireneusz Cichy
200
190
180
Breathing exercises
‘Tag in pairs’
Break
‘Tag with ball’
Break
Tag ‘Bewiched’
120
Break
130
Tag ‘Avalanche’
140
Break
150
Tag ‘Little Tail’
Trot + Gymnastics
160
Rest
Heart rate [beat/min]
170
110
100
0
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
24
27
Time [min]
Figure 1. Mean values of heart rate during the conducted physical class scenario
crease of the examined index. During the fourth running
game, “Tag with Ball,” we observed a constant decrease
of heart rate, which at the end of the game was 176.4 ±
21.1. The difference of the mean value of HR between
the first and the third minute oscillated around 8.0 beat/
min and was statistically insignificant. The mean values
of heart rate observed during the last minute of the third
and fourth game varied; this difference was statistically
significant (P ≤ 0.001). The reaction of the cardiovascular
system to the load resulting from the implementation of
the last game, “Tag in Pairs,” oscillated from 181.8 ± 18.5
(during the first minute) to 185.1 ± 18.4 (during the third
minute). The difference between the maximum heart rate
in the third game and the same variable in the last fifth
game was 7.1 beat/min and was statistically insignificant.
Similarly, the difference between the mean value of HR
during the first and the last game was also statistically
insignificant.
Upon completion of each game, a heart rate frequency decreased and oscillated from 142.6 ± 16.8 after the third game to 154.0 ± 12.8 after the fourth game.
The greatest decrease of the examined variable, which
was observed after the third game, was as high as
48.1 beat/min; the lowest was observed after the fourth
game, 22.5 beat/min (Figure 1).
The analysis of the final part of the implemented
physical education class scenario showed a statistically significant (P ≤ 0.001) decrease of a heart rate in
the cross section of a 3-minute regeneration process
from 185.1 ± 18.4 beat/min after the fifth game to 123.9
± 13.2 beat/min. During the last minute of the final part
the diversity of the examined index oscillated from 62
beat/min to 153 beat/min. A heart rate registered during
the last minute of the final part was on average higher
by 20.6 beat/min in relation to the lowest value of the
initial part.
Discussion
The analysis of the research results indicates a large
changeability of the classes, which is evidenced by the
course of changes of heart rate. Throughout the 3 sub-
– 60 –
Reactions of the cardiovascular system during physical education classes in first grade primary school children
sequent games, i.e. up to the eighteenth minute of the
effort, the studied variable is on the increase, whereas
during the last 2 games intensity slightly decreases between the 20th and 25th minute of the physical education class. HR decline may be caused by emerging
tiredness in organisms of the examined children. We
can suppose that the highest average heart rate (192.2
± 14.5 beat/min) that was revealed during the third running game reflects the maximum stimulation of the circulatory system. Similar values of HR were observed
by Akdur et al. in Turkish children [7].
It must be emphasized that heart rate in children is
significantly higher than in adults, both at rest as well
as during physical effort. This results from, inter alia,
sinoatrial node cells excitability and biological development. Excitability of these cells decreases with age.
Heart work also shows individual personal diversity. It
depends on many factors: biological development level,
body mass, gender, nervous system structure, personal
characteristics, level of physical efficiency, health condition, etc. [8]. Changeability of heart work, expressed
by the abbreviation HRV (Heart Rate Variability), is subject to change depending on emotions, body position,
digestion function, thermoregulation changes, altitude
above mean sea level, climate, as well as various disease conditions such as diabetes, post-infarction state,
ischemic heart disease, and arterial hypertension [9].
In the accessible literature on the subject, we have
not found any publications in which the issue of a curve
intensity of physical education classes of first grade
primary school children would be analyzed. Therefore,
our research results cannot be referred to any literature
examples. There is only some research in this regard,
but referring to older children [10–13]. Upon analyzing
a large population of British children, Van Sluijs et al.
[14] concluded that physical activity with 10-year-old
children in British schools was greater than in these
schools that had a good sports basis. Hobin et al. [15]
emphasized the necessity to attend physical education
classes at least twice a week in order to keep physical activity at an average or high level. Pate et al. [16]
presented research aimed at providing information
on existing methods of measuring physical activity of
kindergarten children. They proved that systems of direct observation of physical activity – accelerometers
– are reliable and commonly recognized methods of
measurement, both in the case of older and younger
children. They also stated that pedometers and monitoring of a heart rate turned out to be very helpful when
controlling physical activity. Among Polish researchers
who have dealt with the topic of physical activity, motor
skills and health of children and young people, we can
mention, among others, Raczek [17]. On the basis of
his own research, he concluded that strength with children, especially with girls, is a feature that is particularly
neglected, and consequently, it is unfavorable with the
functioning of the circulatory system. Relatively low, but
systematically applied strength exercises can lead to
some favorable changes in the cardiovascular system.
Our research indicates that the employed games are
a significant method of increasing adaptation of the
circulatory system with children aged 7 years during
physical education classes in school conditions.
Controlling intensity during physical education classes
has thus far only been conducted by teachers occasionally, and its effects have not been fully objective. When evaluating the class intensity, a dominantly used method is an
intuitional one, on the basis of which a teacher evaluates
child’s reactions to the applied exercises. Measurement of
heart rate by means of palpation on carotid or ray artery
does not solve the problem because of difficulties in performing accurate measurement. The teacher is unable to
carry out these examinations on all the pupils. Individual
measurement by each child is even more error-prone, as
children have neither the experience nor the necessary
skills. Thanks to current technological developments, it
is now possible to monitor cardiac performance in real
time in an accurate and objective way. The teacher is able
to control and correct children’s reactions to the applied
loads and introduce modifications during physical education classes as necessary [18].
In the cross section of our research, we revealed
significant individual differences in heart rates during
the conducted physical education class scenario in its
main part. We could ask why there is such a great diversity of the studied variable. Is it the effect of the loads
applied during physical education classes or rather the
children’s behavior and involvement? Our research
proved that the children’s level of involvement in physical education class is varied. Within the groups, we
revealed a visible diversity with regard to the functioning of individuals in a group. Some of the children are
characterized by a managing style, and they are very
active not only in the research process but also during
the organization of the conducted research. Some of
the children revealed active behaviors directed towards
cooperation without assuming a managing role (cooperative style). Yet another group of children, with regard
to their activity in the group, can be perceived as passive (subordinate style). These children are quiet and are
– 61 –
Paweł Chmura, Andrzej Rokita, Marek Popowczak, Ireneusz Cichy
limited to only following the teacher’s instructions. They
do not reveal their emotions connected with the performed tasks. It is also possible to notice another group
of children who are not eager to take part in the class
and require additional educational measures (withdrawing style) to be motivated to act. There are very few children who reveal active behaviors that are not connected
with elements of integration with the group – these children disturb the class by introducing some destructive
elements (destructive style). Such behaviors are not directed towards common performance of a group task [5].
All of the aforementioned behaviors directly influence an
individual curve of physical education class intensity and
constitute reasons for such a great diversity of heart rate
during physical education classes.
The physical activity of the participants was also significantly influenced by the nature and form of the conducted games as well as competition and rivalry in the
particular physical games. We could even say that high
motivation and desire to achieve the best results were
more important than the growing tiredness. During the
phase of grade one primary school, the children are characterized by various levels of awareness. Also, personal
direct contacts of a pupil with the teacher had a direct
influence on physical activity. Despite many messages
addressed to the children by the teacher, some of the
children did not perform the proposed games. It largely
depended on their personality and temperament.
We can assume that the effort intensity curve is a result of various levels of adaptation to the loads applied
during physical education classes as well as the diversity
in fitness and efficiency of the particular children. Through
observation we can conclude that with some of the children who were fitter and more efficient the applied stimulus did not result in maximum stimulation. Those children
who were less fit and morphologically different from their
peers were quicker in getting tired and were unable to
release high effort intensity in the subsequent running
games. Summarizing, we can conclude that various dynamics of the young organism’s biological development
and diverse levels of effort abilities have a significant impact on the reaction of the cardiovascular system on the
loads applied during physical education classes.
After each 3-minute running game we noticed a significant decrease in heart rate. This is the effect of the
break during which the children rested in a sitting position while the teacher explained the rules of the next
game. During the first 3 breaks the mean value oscillated around similar levels (146.7 ± 16.1; 143.0 ± 19.0;
142.6 ± 16.8), which indicates the organism regeneration
processes are on a relatively constant level. This means
that the generated tiredness still had nothing to do with
dynamics of recreation processes. Upon completion of
the fourth game, we observed lower dynamics of regeneration in children. This is further confirmed by achieving
a significantly higher mean value of a heart rate (153.9 ±
12.9 beat/min). The difference between the third and the
fourth break was as high as 11.3 beat/min. This proves
the growing tiredness of the participants. It must be
added that during the last minute of the final part of the
physical education class, in which breathing exercises
were conducted to set children’s organisms at rest, HR
amounted to 123.9 ± 13.2 beat/min. The studied variable
was significantly lower (P ≤ 0.001) than the highest value
recorded during the fifth game by 61.2 beat/min. This
dynamic post-effort restitution indicates that during the
implementation of the assumed class scenario no overloading state took place. A heart rate towards the end of
the lesson did not reach the value that was achieved in
resting conditions.
Taking into consideration organizational and didactic difficulties in executing control of physical activity of
grade one primary school children, the research began
only after a 6-month pilot research was completed.
Children and teachers alike for the first time had contact
with this sort of examinations and the newest generation
control and measurement equipment. The first contact
of children with Polar Team2 System, when they had to
put the transmitters on their chests, was rather uncomfortable. During each subsequent class and game the
children paid less and less attention to these devices
and began to accept them over the course of time.
We can assume that persons who reach higher
values of heart rates are able to keep intensity on
a high level in the cross section of the entire lesson
time. Consequently, they are more predisposed to be
professionally involved in playing sports in the future.
Therefore, a very important aspect with children aged
7 years is connected with running numerous games of
various nature that influence fluency and ease of performing movements, speed of adapting to changing situations on the pitch in team games, and ease in learning new physical structures connected with movement.
Conclusions
1. The conducted research proved great variability of
the effort intensity while carrying out the particular running games, as evidenced by the course of
changes in heart rate.
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Reactions of the cardiovascular system during physical education classes in first grade primary school children
2. The occurrence of the highest mean value of heart
rate (192.2 ± 14.5 beat/min) during the third game
may indicate the maximum stimulation of the cardiovascular system.
3. Recreation processes after the first 3 running games
were on a similar level and on completion of the
fourth one they visibly slowed down, which could indicate the growing fatigue of the examined pupils.
Acknowledgements
The aforementioned project is carried out by
the local council in Wołów and the University School
of Physical Education in Wrocław under the title:
“Integrated education with the use of educational balls
edubal.”
LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO [1]
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based physical activity for school-age youth. The Journal
of Pediatrics, 2005; 146: 732–737.
[2] Przewęda R, Dobosz J: Physical condition of Polish
youths. Studies and Monographs, Warszawa, University
School of Physical Education in Warsaw, 2003.
[3] Rokita A, Rzepa T: By playing – I learn: educational balls in
the integrated education [in Polish]. Wrocław, Wydawnictwo Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego, 2002.
[4] Rokita A, Rzepa T: Educational balls in early school
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– 63 –
NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
THE ROLE OF EURHYTHMICS AND DANCE CLASSES
IN SHAPING THE PHYSICAL AND MUSICAL
DEVELOPMENT OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
ROLA ZAJĘĆ RYTMICZNO-TANECZNYCH
W KSZTAŁTOWANIU ROZWOJU FIZYCZNEGO
I MUZYCZNEGO DZIECI W WIEKU PRZEDSZKOLNYM
Anna Poznańska*, Joanna Stożek**,
Zuzanna Filar***, Katarzyna Filar-Mierzwa*
****PhD, Department of Theory and Methodology of Musical and Dance Forms, University School of Physical
Education, Cracow, Poland
****PhD, Department of Clinical Rehabilitation, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland
****MA, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland
Key words: motor development, dance, eurhythmics, 6-year-old children
Słowa kluczowe: rozwój motoryczny, taniec, rytmika, dzieci w wieku 6 lat
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Introduction. Dance classes with music have a comprehensive impact on a child’s development – they
train both motor and musical skills. This is particularly significant at the early stage of education, when it is
possible to direct the training of the efficiency of a child’s movements and sensitivity to music thus effectively
improving a child’s predisposition.
Aim of the study. The aim of the study is to determine the influence of dance and eurhythmics classes on
motor and music development of preschool children.
Material and methods. Ninety 6-year-old children participated in the study. All of the children (42 girls and
48 boys) attended kindergartens in Krakow and some of them attended additional dance classes or eurhythmics
classes or both. The preschool children were assessed in terms of physical ability and musical aptitude. The
assessment of physical fitness was carried out with selected tests from the European Test of Physical Fitness
(Eurofit). Musical aptitude was measured by using the Edwin E. Gordon’s Intermediate Measures of Music
Audition test. The subjects were grouped according to participation in additional classes (dance, eurhythmics,
both, or lack of activity).
Results. In terms of motor capacities the best results in more than half of the trials were achieved by those
who participated in dance classes. The best results in the melody and rhythm tests were obtained by the children who attended both dance and eurhythmics classes.
Conclusions. Additional stimulation, in the form of both dance and music classes decisively favours motor
and musical development of the examined children. Dance classes may play a proper role in training the sense
of rhythm in preschool children.
Wstęp. Zajęcia taneczne przy muzyce wpływają wszechstronnie na rozwój dziecka, kształcą zarówno jego
sprawność ruchową, jak i muzyczną. Szczególnie jest to istotne we wczesnym okresie nauczania, kiedy można
kierunkowo kształtować efektywność jego ruchów i wrażliwość muzyczną, podwyższając w ten sposób skutecznie
jego predyspozycje.
– 65 –
Anna Poznańska, Joanna Stożek, Zuzanna Filar, Katarzyna Filar-Mierzwa
Cel pracy. Celem pracy jest określenie wpływu zajęć tanecznych i rytmicznych na rozwój motoryczny i muzyczny dzieci w wieku przedszkolnym.
Materiał i metody. Badaniom poddano 90 dzieci w wieku 6 lat. Wszystkie dzieci (42 dziewczynki i 48 chłopców) uczęszczały do krakowskich przedszkoli, a część z nich uczestniczyła w dodatkowych zajęciach tanecznych,
rytmicznych lub w obu tych formach. U dzieci oceniono sprawność fizyczną i zdolności muzyczne. Sprawność
motoryczną dzieci określono na podstawie wybranych testów „Eurofitu”. Pomiaru zdolności muzycznych dokonano
testem – Średnia Miara Słuchu Muzycznego Erwina E. Gordona. Badanych podzielono na grupy ze względu na
uczestniczenie w dodatkowych zajęciach (tanecznych, rytmicznych, obu) lub brak aktywności.
Wyniki. Pod względem zdolności motorycznych najlepsze wyniki w ponad połowie badanych cech uzyskały
dzieci z zajęć tanecznych. Najlepsze wyniki w teście melodii i rytmu uzyskały dzieci uczęszczające na zajęcia
taneczno-rytmiczne.
Wnioski. Dodatkowa stymulacja zarówno w postaci zajęć tanecznych, jak i muzycznych w zdecydowany sposób sprzyja lepszemu rozwojowi motorycznemu i muzycznemu badanych dzieci. Zajęcia taneczne mogą spełniać
prawidłową rolę w kształceniu poczucia rytmu u dzieci w wieku przedszkolnym.
Introduction
Dance is both a motor and emotional human need,
which appears from the earliest years of life. Dance
is the willingness to move rhythmically to the sound of
music. The relationship between dance movement and
music is obvious. It is well known that if somebody has
a good sense of rhythm she or he also has better control of the body and can move better in harmony with
the character of the music. The sense of rhythm is a talent of perception, memorization and the most accurate
performance of rhythmic activities [1]. Rhythm, which
plays a special role in dance, accompanies all human
motor activities. Development of both motor and musical abilities depends on various factors: psychomotor
predispositions and bio-psycho-social determinants
[2]. According to Ljach [3] before motor activities are
undertaken, the abilities are a hidden, unrealized, anatomical and physiological potential, which can remain in
this form if the proper conditions do not occur. Similarly,
musical development is possible if there are both the
potential for specific musical aptitude (auditory, vocal
and motor predispositions allowing the perception of
sound material and various forms of musical activities
and sensitivity to musical stimuli) and appropriate environmental factors (suitable level of musical culture in
environment, access to music, stimulation and support
the child’s musical activity) [4].
The best period for the development of learning
abilities is childhood up to the age of eight, because
then the majority of nervous connections in the brain
are formed. Musical stimulation by means of musical
games, listening to music, dance classes, learning to
play musical instruments and trying to compose one’s
own music contribute to an increase in the number of
active neurons in the brain as well as to the improve-
ment of information transfer. Learning is for the brain
what exercise is for muscles, which grow and improve
under the influence of training [4]. In kindergarten
children can attend eurhythmics and dance classes,
which function as either education or a game. The
main aims of rhythmical education are shaping an
ability to perform the course of music with movements
of the body and in consequence understanding the
relationship between physical and musical movement. Dance, similar to eurhythmics, teaches rhythm
and psychomotor and the coordination elements related with it. Furthermore, dance shapes suppleness,
elasticity and harmony of movement and balance as
well as developing proprioception, i.e. the sense of the
body. First of all, however, dance is a form of expression, allowing one to express one’s own feelings and
emotions by means of a sequence of movements [5].
Due to the importance that dance classes have for
the human body, knowledge concerning motor activities of the child is essential for a music teacher or instructor, to the same degree as knowledge about the
music’s influence.
The aim of the study is to assess the level of motor
and musical development of 6-year-old children. It was
assumed that additional stimulation in terms of either
music or dance classes contributes to better musical
and motor development in children.
The following questions were formulated:
1. What is the influence of additional eurhythmics and
dance classes on the level of development of physical fitness and a sense of rhythm in assessed children?
2. Does the character of additional classes (eurhythmics, dance), distinguish between the assessed
groups of children with regard to their motor and
musical development?
– 66 –
The role of eurhythmics and dance classes in shaping the physical and musical development of preschool children
Material and methods
Ninety 6-year-old children participated in the study. All
children (42 girls and 48 boys) attended kindergartens
number 97 and 125 and the kindergarten department at
primary school number 47 in Krakow. Some of the children additionally attended dance classes, eurhythmics
classes or both once a week for at least two years. The
assessments were carried out in February and March
2010. Further analysis were carried out without taking
into consideration sex diversity, because the motor diversity in both genders of preschool children is caused
by the influence of environment rather than changes of
biological development [6].
Methods
The preschool children were assessed in terms of
physical abilities and musical aptitude.
The height and body weight of the children as basic
somatic parameters were measured.
One of the criteria in the choice of physical fitness
tests was the comparability of the tests to the results of
other researchers [7]. In addition, we used tests assessing chosen coordination skills such as balance and reaction speed. Due to the high dispersion of results obtained
in the commonly used balance test “Flamingo balance”,
we decided to carry out additional measurement of this
parameter by means of the Ozierecki balance test. The
motor trials were precisely determined and diversified
according to the age of assessed children [6].
The data needed for analysis was obtained in the
following tests:
– the assessment of explosive strength of the lower
extremities measured with a standing board jump
(cm);
– the assessment of explosive strength of upper extremities and trunk was measured with the throw of
the medicine ball (cm);
– the assessment of running speed, agility, was measured with timed shuttle run 4 × 5 m (sec.);
– the assessment of suppleness was measured with
sit-and-reach (forward bend of the trunk) (cm);
– the assessment of strength endurance of abdomen
muscles was measured with sit-ups within 30 seconds (sitting from lying, number of repetitions);
– the assessment of the ability to react quickly was
measured with the grip of Dietrich’s baton (cm);
– static balance was assessed by means of the
Ozierecki Balance Test (scores) [6].
The measurement of musical aptitude: melodic and
rhythmic were carried out with Intermediate Measures
of the Music Audition test by Edwin E. Gordon [8]. The
test consisted of 2 trials. The first one concerned recognizing and properly comparing previously listened to
melodies, the second one concerned identifying short
rhythmic values.
Adding up the scores obtained in the two trials gave
the general result of the mean measurement of an ear
for music in the examined children. The maximum result is 80 points (40 for each trial).
The statistical calculation of the results was carried out with the division of all examined children into
4 groups: attending eurhythmics classes (1), attending
dance classes (2), attending both dance and eurhythmics classes (3), and without additional classes (4).
The comparison of results obtained in particular groups
was performed with a one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA). Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.
If significant differences were found, the post-hoc tests
were carried out (Tukey test).
Results
The data is presented below, in the tables with division
into four groups according to the kind of musical – physical activity of the assessed children.
The morphological development of assessed children proceeds in the similar way. The children who did
not participate in any form of indicated classes had the
smallest parameters, but the differences are not significant (Table 1).
The results obtained in the jump are not significantly different, but the longest were observed in children
from both dance and eurhythmics classes, then in the
group that participated in dance classes, then in the
group that participated in eurhythmics classes and the
shortest jumps were observed in children without additional classes (Table 2).
In the trial of the throw of the medicine ball children
from the dance group obtained the best results, after
them came the children from the dance-eurhythmics
group (Table 2). Results in both these groups were
significantly better than results of inactive children
(Table 3).
Similarly, in the shuttle run, the children from the
dance group and the eurhythmics-dance group were
the fastest ones (Table 4). They obtained significantly
better results than their inactive peers (Table 5).
– 67 –
Anna Poznańska, Joanna Stożek, Zuzanna Filar, Katarzyna Filar-Mierzwa
Table 1. The results of the one-way ANOVA of height and body weight in examined children
GROUP
Height
Body weight [kg]
F(3, 86) = 1.9528, p = 0.12715
F(3, 86) = 2.3722, p = 0.07593
x
SD
x
SD
Eurhythmics
n = 16
123.78
1.38
24.61
1.00
Dance
n = 18
120.72
1.30
25.078
0.94
Dance + Eurhythmics
n = 26
121.98
1.08
24.94
0.78
No classes
n = 30
119.87
1.01
22.53
0.73
Table 2. The results of the one-way ANOVA of the standing board jump and throw of the medicine ball in examined groups of children
GROUP
STANDING BOARD JUMP
THROW THE MEDICINE BALL
F(3, 86) = 2.0788, p = 0.10895
F(3, 86) = 6.1754, p = 0.00075
x
SD
x
SD
Eurhythmics
n = 16
93.44
4.21
2.375
0.138
Dance
n = 18
98.05
3.97
2.667
0.130
Dance + Eurhythmics
n = 26
103.04
3.31
2.431
0.108
No classes
n = 30
92.52
3.08
1.999
0.101
Table 3. Results of post-hoc statistical analysis (Tukey test) for the throw of the medicine ball
Eurhythmics
Dance
Dance + Eurhythmics
No classes
0.442841
0.991313
0.223951
Dance
0.442841
0.578581
0.002720
Dance + Eurhythmics
0.991313
0.578581
0.029048
No classes
0.223951
0.002720
0.029048
Eurhythmics
The inactive children had the smallest range of bend
forward whereas children participating in additional
dance and eurhythmics classes had no significantly
better suppleness and achieved results which were
close to one another in these three groups (Table 4).
As the results indicate, children attending dance
classes had the strongest abdomen muscles. The rest
of the groups had poorer results but the differences are
not significant. The children in the eurhythmics – dance
group were the best at coordination measured with the
grip of the Dietrich’s baton. The rest of the groups performed poorer and obtained a similar score (Table 6).
Children from the dance and the dance with eurhythmics groups achieved the best results in the balance test (Table 7). Their results were significantly better than those of the inactive children. The results of
– 68 –
The role of eurhythmics and dance classes in shaping the physical and musical development of preschool children
Table 4. The results of the one-way ANOVA of the shuttle run and sit-and-reach in examined children
GROUP
SHUTTLE RUN
SIT-AND-REACH
F(3, 86) = 3.3085, p = 0.02390
F(3, 86) = 1.1783, p = 0.32281
x
SD
x
SD
Eurhythmics
n = 16
10.700
0.234
51.18750
1.611802
Dance
n = 18
10.306
0.220
52.16667
1.519622
Dance + Eurhythmics
n = 26
10.388
0.183
52.73077
1.264402
No classes
n = 30
11.047
0.171
49.66667
1.177094
Table 5. The results of the post-hoc statistical analysis (Tukey test) for the shuttle run
Eurhythmics
Eurhythmics
Dance
Dance + Eurhythmics
No classes
0.632689
0.782049
0.721298
0.993432
0.089049
Dance
0.632689
Dance + Eurhythmics
0.782049
0.993432
No classes
0.721298
0.089049
0.049140
0.049140
Table 6. The results of the one-way ANOVA of sit-ups within 30 seconds (repeated sitting from lying) as well as the grip of Dietrich’s
baton in the examined children
GROUP
SIT-UP
GRIP OF DITRICH’S BATON
F(3, 86) = 1.8217, p = 0.14923
F(3. 86) = 1.5855, p = 0.19878
x
SD
x
SD
Eurhythmics
n = 16
8.00000
1.037466
25.12500
1.636093
Dance
n = 18
10.27778
0.978133
24.88889
1.542524
Dance + Eurhythmics
n = 26
7.46154
0.813856
21.65385
1.283457
No classes
n = 30
8.96667
0.757658
24.93333
1.194834
the dance group were also significantly better than the
results achieved by the children from the eurhythmics
group (Table 7, 8).
The children from the dance-eurhythmics and the
dance groups obtained the best scores in the melody
test, the first part of the Gordon test, which measures
musical abilities (Table 9). The children attending the
eurhythmics classes achieved three points less, and
the lowest score was obtained by the inactive children
whose results were significantly poorer than the results
of the first two groups (Table 9, 10).
The results of the second part in the Gordon test
indicate that the group of children participating in the
dance-eurhythmics classes had the best rhythmic abilities (Table 9). The dance group obtained two points less
followed by the eurhythmics group. The inactive group
– 69 –
Anna Poznańska, Joanna Stożek, Zuzanna Filar, Katarzyna Filar-Mierzwa
Table 7. The results of the one-way ANOVA for the balance test in the examined children
BALANCE TEST
GROUP
F(3, 86) = 9.7296, p = 0.00001
x
SD
–95%
95%
Eurhythmics
n = 16
0.812500
0.264279
0.287132
1.337868
Dance
n = 18
1.833333
0.249164
1.338011
2.328655
Dance + Eurhythmics
n = 26
1.500000
0.207317
1.087867
1.912133
No classes
n = 30
0.333333
0.193002
–0.050341
0.717008
Table 8. The results of the post-hoc statistical analysis (Tukey test) for the balance test
Eurhythmics
Eurhythmics
Dance
Dance + Eurhythmics
No classes
0.037760
0.262253
0.576852
0.780215
0.000427
Dance
0.037760
Dance + Eurhythmics
0.262253
0.780215
No classes
0.576852
0.000427
0.000928
0.000928
Table 9. The results of the one-way ANOVA for the melody and rhythm test in the examined children
GROUP
MELODY TEST
RHYTHM TEST
F(3, 86) = 7.8825, p = 0.00011
F(3, 86) = 3,7064, p = 0.01469
x
SD
x
SD
Eurhythmics
n = 16
27.56250
1.433866
25.50000
1.288959
Dance
n = 18
29.72222
1.351862
26.11111
1.215242
Dance + Eurhythmics
n = 26
30.30769
1.124817
28.30769
1.011142
No classes
n = 29
23.41379
1.065049
23.68966
0.957414
Table 10. The results of the post-hoc statistical analysis (Tukey test) for the melody test
Eurhythmics
Eurhythmics
Dance
Dance + Eurhythmics
No classes
0.711687
0.531725
0.179655
0.990043
0.007682
Dance
0.711687
Dance + Eurhythmics
0.531725
0.990043
No classes
0.179655
0.007682
– 70 –
0.000358
0.000358
The role of eurhythmics and dance classes in shaping the physical and musical development of preschool children
of children obtained the poorest result of 24 points and
was significantly poorer in rhythmic abilities than the
best, the dance-eurhythmics group (Table 9, 11).
In the total results of the Gordon test the children
taking part in the dance-eurhythmics classes obtained
inactive group of children, which scored only 46 points
(Table 12, 13).
The mean of the measured feature in the children
participating in additional classes (eurhythmics, dance
and both) was compared to the mean and the standard
Table 11. The results of the post-hoc statistical analysis (Tukey test) for the rhythm test
Eurhythmics
Eurhythmics
Dance
Dance + Eurhythmics
No classes
0.987005
0.418371
0.753797
0.579374
0.497387
Dance
0.987005
Dance + Eurhythmics
0.418371
0.579374
No classes
0.753797
0.497387
0.009472
0.009472
Table 12. The results of the one-way ANOVA for the Gordon test in the examined children
GORDON TEST (total score)
GROUP
F(3, 86) = 6.5348, p = 0.00050
x
SD
–95%
95%
Eurhythmics
n = 16
53.56250
2.468553
0.287132
1.337868
Dance
n = 18
54.94444
2.327374
1.338011
2.328655
Dance + Eurhythmics
n = 26
57.84615
1.936493
1.087867
1.912133
No classes
n = 29
46.48276
1.833595
–0.050341
0.717008
Table 13. The results of the post-hoc statistical analysis (Tukey test) for the Gordon test
Eurhythmics
Eurhythmics
Dance
Dance + Eurhythmics
No classes
0.978907
0.611613
0.185997
0.814440
0.049623
Dance
0.978907
Dance + Eurhythmics
0.611613
0.814440
No classes
0.185997
0.049623
58 points out of possible 80 and the children from
dance classes achieved 55 points (Table 12). These results are significantly better than those obtained by the
0.000571
0.000571
deviation assessed features in the inactive children and
the normalized indexes were calculated for better data
presentation (Table 14, Figure 1).
– 71 –
Anna Poznańska, Joanna Stożek, Zuzanna Filar, Katarzyna Filar-Mierzwa
Table 14. The normalized indexes of measured features in the groups of children participating in various forms of dance and eurhythmics classes
No classes
Parameters
X1
Height
Eurhythmics
S1
X2
Dance
U
X3
Eurhythmics + Dance
U
X4
U
119.87
1.01
123.78
3.87
120.77
0.89
121.98
2.09
Body weight
22.53
0.73
24.61
2.85
25.08
3.49
24.94
3.3
BMI
15.82
0.38
16.03
0.55
17.1
3.37
16.7
2.32
92.52
3.08
93.44
0.3
98.06
1.8
103.04
3.42
2.0
0.1
2.38
3.8
2.67
6.7
2.43
4.3
Shuttle run
11.05
0.17
10.7
2.06
10.31
4.35
10.39
3.88
Sit-and-reach
49.67
1.18
51.19
1.29
52.17
2.12
52.73
2.59
8.97
0.76
8.0
–1.28
10.28
1.72
7.46
–1.98
24.93
1.19
25.13
–1.17
24.89
0.03
21.65
2.76
0.33
0.19
0.81
2.52
1.83
7.89
1.5
6.16
Melody test
23.41
1.07
27.56
3.88
29.72
5.9
30.31
6.45
Rhythm test
23.69
0.96
25.5
1.69
26.11
2.52
28.31
4.81
Gordon test (total score)
46.48
1.83
53.56
3.87
54.94
4.62
57.84
6.21
Motor tests
Standing board jump
Throw the medicine ball
Sit-ups
Grip the baton
Balance test
Musical tests
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Ͳ
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”—
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Figure 1. The normalized indexes of the measured features in the groups of children participating in various forms of dance and
eurhythmics classes
– 72 –
The role of eurhythmics and dance classes in shaping the physical and musical development of preschool children
Discussion
The interest in the influence of music education on the
development of musical skills found wide reflection in
music psychology. There are many reports about the
development of musical abilities in preschool children
concerning among other things: the stage of the development of particular musical abilities, conditions of
their development, the ways of assessment, structure
of music abilities and so on [9]. The results of our study
indicate explicitly that particularly in the preschool period the variety of musical abilities emerges. The ages
between 3 and 7 are considered to be critical for the
development of an ear for music. The musical development of the child is closely associated with the resource
of experience with all forms of musical activities, starting from singing classes, playing instruments, dance
– eurhythmics classes, listening to music up to its creation. Preschool age is also the essential period in motor development of the child. The children assessed
in our study were in the final period of preschool age
(6 years), in the phase of high mobility and even motor extravagance and a great variety of the forms of
movement [10]. A six-year-old child can perform many
movements’ combinations, which also demand a sense
of rhythm. A child at this age moves not only faster
but also more harmonious and it is a consequence
of the significant increase in movement coordination.
Physical education classes organized in kindergarten
strongly influence the development of physical fitness
features [11].
Analysis of the results obtained in the four groups
of children divided according to the kind of additional
classes or lack there of, indicates similar development
in terms of morphological features in all groups, and
the smallest body build is presented in children with
the least amount of physical activity. The differences,
however, are small and not significant. The results describing motor development in distinguished groups are
quite different. The children who additionally participated in dance classes obtained the best results in four
tests concerning motor abilities. They presented better
explosive strength of upper extremities and trunk, better
balance, running speed as well as strength of abdomen
muscles. In the rest of the trials in which the explosive
strength of lower extremities, suppleness and coordination were measured, the children who participated in
both dance and eurhythmics classes appeared to be
the best. Children who participated only in eurhythmics
classes showed poorer performance in the motor trials,
but the poorest results were obtained by the children
who did not take part in any kind of additional classes.
Significant differences were found in tests assessing
the strength of upper extremities, the running speed
(agility) and balance between children who participated
in dance and eurhythmics classes and children without additional activities. Markis and Bartoszek [12] obtained similar results. They found positive effects of the
corrective-compensating classes on the development
of physical fitness in children of preschool age. The authors indicated that in comparison to the control group,
the assessed children did not differ in motor development but they obtained significantly better results in all
physical fitness tests than children that did not participate in additional motor classes. From the physiological
and biomechanical point of view the dance – eurhythmics classes can be described as static – dynamic that
work almost all the groups of muscles with the majority
of the dynamic component in the lower extremities and
the static one in the back muscles [13]. Dance demands
certain aesthetics of movement and is connected with
the maintenance of the correct posture through engaging abdominal and back muscles.
The variety of movement combinations, which are
provided by dance classes and performing dance routines in changing conditions (changes of directions and
dynamics of the movement, changes of the position of
the body in space, ability to maintain balance and so
on) contribute to the shaping of movement coordination.
A multiplicity of different kinds of movements which are
used in dance classes, certainly contributed to obtaining better results in the group of children participating
in dance classes. The best results in the Intermediate
Measures of Music Audition test in the first and the
second part were achieved by children who attended
dance – eurhythmics classes. Surprisingly, the next
was the group participating in dance classes, which
appeared to have better perception of music than the
children attending only the eurhythmics classes. This
can be explained by the fact that music accompanying motor tasks develops perception, a sense of rhythm
and in result generates the activity of auditory analyser.
On the other hand the dance classes promote developing visual perception through the need for analyzing
the elements of a pattern and synthesizing them during
performance. By performing dance movements, the
children get to know their bodies, improve the motor
activities of their limbs and their movement coordination. Performing the movement placed in space shapes
and consolidates the orientation in space. Cooperation
– 73 –
Anna Poznańska, Joanna Stożek, Zuzanna Filar, Katarzyna Filar-Mierzwa
of all three analysers contributes to the development
of motor-auditory-visual coordination and that means
perceptual-motor integration [14]. As Burowska reports
[4], preschool children use music in a natural way as the
basis of motor reactions, but not always in agreement
with the formal course of music as a result of the motor
control still not being sufficient at this age. The further
development of rhythmic skills is joined not only with
music development but also with the development of
general psychomotor coordination.
The lowest scores in the assessment of an ear for
music were obtained by the children who did not participate in any form of additional classes. Significant differences both in melody and rhythm tests were found
between children who attended dance classes and
eurhythmics-dance classes in comparison to children
without additional classes. Różańska and Sacewicz
[15] obtained similar results in 8-year-old children and it
confirms the significant influence of dance classes on
the ear for music and musical aptitude.
Results, obtained in our study find that dance – eurhythmics classes can and should be a broad form of
physical education for preschool child.
Conclusions
1. Additional stimulation both in the form of dance and
eurhythmics classes definitely support better motor
and musical development in children.
2. The character of additional classes distinguishes
assessed groups and indicates the positive influence of dance classes on physical fitness of 6-yearold children.
3. Additional dance classes play an important role in
the development of the sense of the rhythm and
musical skills in preschool children.
LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Gordon EE: Podstawowa miara słuchu muzycznego i średnia miara słuchu muzycznego. Testy uzdolnień muzycznych
dla dzieci w wieku 5–9 lat. Manuale. Warszawa, Akademia
Muzyczna Centrum Edukacji Artystycznej, 1999.
[2] Osiński W: Antropomotoryka. Poznań, AWF, 2003.
[3] Ljach W: Kształtowanie zdolności motorycznych dzieci
i młodzieży. Podręcznik dla nauczycieli, trenerów i młodzieży. Warszawa, Centralny Ośrodek Sportu, 2003.
[4] Burowska Z, Głowacka E: Psychodydaktyka muzyczna, zarys problematyki. Kraków, Akademia Muzyczna,
2006.
[5] Kronenberger M: Rytmika, rytm, ruch, muzyka, estetyka,
kształcenie, wychowanie, profilaktyka, terapia, taniec,
teatr. Łódź, Wydawnictwo Global Enterprises, 2006.
[6] Przewęda R: Rozwój somatyczny i motoryczny. Warszawa, WSiP, 1981.
[7] Chrzanowska M., Gołąb S.: Dziecko krakowskie 2000.
Sprawność fizyczna i postawa dzieci i młodzieży miasta
Krakowa. Kraków, AWF, 2003.
[8] Kamińska B, Kotarska H: Średnia miara słuchu muzycznego. Podręcznik dla testu Erwina E. Gordona. Warszawa,
Uniwersytet Muzyczny Fryderyka Chopina, 2008.
[9] Lewandowska K: Muzykoterapia dziecięca. Zbiór rozpraw
z psychologii muzycznej dziecka i muzykoterapii dziecięcej. Gdańsk, OPTIMA s.c., 2007.
[10] Demel M, Skład A: Teoria wychowania fizycznego. Warszawa, PWN, 1986.
[11] Ugodowska G: Poziom sprawności fizycznej i ruchowej
dzieci wrocławskich przedszkoli. Kultura Fizyczna, 1992;
9/10 :19 – 21.
[12] Markis M., Bartoszek J.: Wpływ zajęć gimnastyki kompensacyjno-korekcyjnej na rozwój fizyczny i sprawność
fizyczną dzieci w wieku przedszkolnym. Aktywność
ruchowa ludzi w różnym wieku. Szczecin, Wydawnictwo
Promocyjne „Albatros”; 2000: 60–66.
[13] Janiszewski M: Muzykoterapia aktywna. Warszawa–Łódź,
PWN, 1993.
[14] Kuński H, Janiszewski M: Muzykoterapia w promowaniu
zdrowia. Łódź, Akademia Muzyczna, 1998.
[15] Różańska D, Sacewicz T: Poziom rytmizacji oraz słuchu
muzycznego – dzieci zajmujących się tańcem na tle dzieci
nie tańczących. Wychowanie Fizyczne i Zdrowotne, 2008;
4: 36–41.
– 74 –
NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
CHANGES IN THE LEVEL OF COORDINATION MOTOR
ABILITIES IN GRECO-ROMAN WRESTLERS
AGED 12–19
ZMIANY POZIOMU KOORDYNACYJNYCH ZDOLNOŚCI
MOTORYCZNYCH U ZAPAŚNIKÓW STYLU
KLASYCZNEGO W WIEKU 12–19 LAT
Dariusz Gierczuk*, Vladimir Lyakh**, Aneta Gierczuk***
****PhD, The Faculty of Physical Education and Sport in Biała Podlaska, Poland
****Prof. Dr Habil., Department of Antropomotorics, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland,
the Faculty of Physical Education and Sport in Biała Podlaska, Poland
****MA, The Sporting Championship School in Radom, Poland
Key words: wrestling, coordination motor abilities, sensitive and critical periods
Słowa kluczowe: zapasy, koordynacyjne zdolności motoryczne, okresy sensytywne
i krytyczne
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Introduction. Recognising and determining the changes in the level of coordination motor abilities (CMA)
at various stages of sports training will make it possible to specify the means and methods of coordinative
preparation in the course of a long-term training process. As a result, a more effective improvement and faster
achievement of a high level of sports advancement will be feasible.
Aim of the study. The aim of the study was to determine the changes in the level of particular CMA in
Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 12–19.
Material and methods. Wrestlers from the Student Sports Club “Dwójka” and the Sports School in Radom
took part in the research. They were divided into 8 age groups: 12-, 13-, 14-, 15-, 16-, 17-, 18- and 19-year-olds.
The levels of 14 indicators describing 7 coordination abilities were evaluated in the course of the three-yearslong continual research.
Results and conclusions. It was confirmed that the development of the assessed CMA in Greco-Roman
wrestlers aged 12–19 occurs at different points of time, at different intensity and takes different directions, thus
making it unique. The biggest changes in the level of the CMA were observed in wrestlers aged 12–13 and
16–17. As for the former group, there occurred considerable development of all the CMA under investigation,
while in the latter one it was found mainly in the case of balance, motor adaptability and kinesthetic differentiation. Furthermore, it was revealed that quick reaction, balance, and rhythm skills still develop in wrestlers up
to 19 years of age.
Wstęp. Poznanie oraz określenie poziomu rozwoju koordynacyjnych zdolności motorycznych (KZM) na różnych
etapach szkolenia sportowego pozwala na lepsze sprecyzowanie środków i metod przygotowania koordynacyjnego w wieloletnim procesie treningowym, przez co możliwe staje się efektywniejsze usprawnianie i szybsze
osiąganie mistrzostwa sportowego.
Cel badań. Ustalenie zmian poziomu rozwoju poszczególnych KZM u zapaśników stylu klasycznego w przedziale wieku 12–19 lat.
– 75 –
Dariusz Gierczuk, Vladimir Lyakh, Aneta Gierczuk
Materiał i metody. W badaniach wzięło udział 32 zapaśników z Uczniowskiego Klubu Sportowego ,,Dwójka”
i Szkoły Mistrzostwa Sportowego z Radomia, którzy zostali podzieleni na 8 grup wiekowych: 12, 13, 14, 15, 16,
17, 18 i 19 lat. Ocenie poddano poziom 14 wskaźników charakteryzujących 7 zdolności koordynacyjnych podczas
trzyletnich badań ciągłych.
Wyniki i wnioski. Ustalono, że rozwój ocenianych KZM zapaśników stylu klasycznego w wieku 12–19 lat ma
odmienną dynamikę oraz indywidualny charakter. Największe zmiany poziomu KZM wystąpiły w wieku 12–13 oraz
16–17 lat. W pierwszym okresie odnotowano wyraźny rozwój wszystkich ocenianych KZM, w drugim – głównie
zdolności równowagi ciała, dostosowania motorycznego i różnicowania kinestetycznego. Wykazano również, że
do dziewiętnastego roku życia nadal kształtuje się szybka reakcja, a ponadto – równowaga ciała oraz rytmizacja
ruchów.
Introduction
In contemporary sport, there is a trend to search for new
solutions of improving the technical and tactical perfection,
as well as the efficiency of sports rivalry. As recent studies showed, one of the most important ways to achieve
master quality in sport is raising the level of the CMA
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. The particular role of the CMA is revealed
in these sports, which require complex motor activities
and where there are different conditions of their use [6, 7].
The importance of the CMA increases along with the volume and variety of motor tasks characteristic for a given
sport [7]. The optimal increase of the CMA occurs while
rational, systematic and targeted ways of their development are used. It is assumed that a greater adaptability
of the CMA occurs between 7 and 12 years of age and
between 14 and 18 years of age [8]. However, the periods
of the most beneficial development of particular CMA do
not overlap [1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 11]. The increase of intensity
of the CMA development in the periods other than those
mentioned above may be toilsome and less effective. It
is truly important for sports training since it can disturb
its course, hampering the achievement of the assumed
stage and perspective objectives of the training [12].
In Greco-Roman wrestling, the sport of a complex
motor activities, one of the directions of optimization of
sports training is a precise knowledge of the competitor’s coordinative area of motor functionality including
the identification of the levels of the leading CMA and
determining the changes of them during the whole
training process [13].
In the literature concerning the combat sports, including the Greco-Roman wrestling, a little attention
was paid to the issue of the CMA, and particularly to
the dynamics of their development and their levels during the whole process of sports training.
The objective of the study was to determine the
dynamics of the CMA changes in the Greco-Roman
wrestlers aged 12–19.
The aim of the study was formulated in four detailed
research questions:
1. What were the levels of the assessed CMA in wrestlers aged 12–19?
2. Are there significant differences in the CMA levels
between competitors of different ages?
3. What was the dynamics of the CMA changes in the
studied wrestlers?
4. Do the periods of more dynamic development of the
selected CMA occur in the wrestlers aged 12–19?
Material and methods
The analyzed data are the effects of the three-yearslong continual studies of two sports groups. One of
the groups consisted of the Greco-Romans wrestlers
from the Students Sport Club “Dwójka” from Radom.
At the start of the study, the participants’ age was
12.5 ± 0.25 years (n = 16), and at the end of the
study 15.5 ± 0.25 years. The second group consisted of the students of the Sports School in Radom
who were also practising the Greco-Roman wrestling.
During the course of the study their age was changing from 16.6 ± 0.36 up to 19.6 ± 0.36 years (n =
16). The training experience of the competitors from
the first group was at the beginning of the study 6 ± 0.30 months and of the second group 3.1 ± 0.47
years, and at the end of the study 3.6 ± 0.30 and
6.1 ± 0.47 years, respectively. The participants were
of a similar biological age, established on the basis
of the morphological age. The competitors from the
first group participated in the wrestling training four
times a week for 1.5 hour, and the competitors from
the second group participated in the wrestling training six times a week for 2 hours. The CMA training
was conducted in both groups mostly during the
general fitness preparations and was an integral part
of the technical training. According to the coaches’
assessment, the total volume of the coordination ex-
– 76 –
Changes in the level of coordination motor abilities in Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 12–19
ercises in the younger competitors amounted to 20%
and in the older competitors to 15% of the exercise
volume.
The tests were conducted with the participation of
the same competitors every year for 3 years, at the beginning of the training cycle, after the vacations break.
The number of the group members did not change during the four series of tests. Diagnosis of the specific
CMA parameters was a part of the studies carried out
under the control of the training staff and aimed at determining the current sports level of the competitors
from the point of view of the achievement of seasonal
objective and the selection of the training loads. The
measuring procedure was each time identical.
7 CMA were estimated on the basis of 14 parameters. To achieve the objective of the study, the sport
and motor tests developed by various authors [8, 14]
and those of our own [15] were applied, which were
checked beforehand from the point of view of accuracy
and adequacy [15]. The following capabilities were diagnosed:
– kinaesthetic differentiation assessed on the basis of
„long jumps at 50% of maximum capacity”;
– motor adaptability assessed by “standing long
jumps forwards and backwards” tests and “3 x 10
m run forwards and backwards” tests;
– rhythm skills’ rating was based on the evaluation of
rhythm imitation and differentiation in the course of
“5 cycle test” and “skipping on the Jonhson-Matheny
mat” test;
– time-space orientation was measured by the “jumps
to target” and “run to colourful balls” tests;
– the ability of movement coupling was assessed by
“rearrangement of gymnastic sticks” and “standing
long jump with and without arm swing” tests;
– dynamic body balance was assessed by “turns on
a gymnastic bench” tests;
– static body balance was estimated by “standing on
tiptoes” test;
– quick reaction ability was evaluated using “grab at
Ditrich stick” test.
In order to monitor the changes in the CMA development, the increase rate (5) of the specific parameters identifying different CMA between particular age categories,
i.e. 12–13, 13–14, 14–15, 15–16, 16–17, 17–18 and 18–19
was calculated. The dynamics of changes was determined on the basis of the increase values of the selected
CMA parameters in particular age categories in reference
to their levels from the previous year. In calculating the
statistical significance of the differences between the results of the successive age categories, the Student’s test
was used at the normal distribution of individual values for
dependent and independent groups. Individual rate of the
development of particular CMA was presented on the example of one competitor having – at the beginning of the
study – low, and the second competitor having high level
of particular CMA. In determining how much the mean
results in particular tests increased, the mean result from
the category of 12 years was divided by the best result
achieved in the whole age category.
Results
Study results concerning the changes of the level of
the selected CMA in the wrestlers aged 12–19 were depicted in Tables 1 and 2, and in Figures 1–8.
The attained data prove that the dynamics of development of the selected CMA varies since the significant
changes of the level of the CMA parameters occur in
different ages of the studied participants, they are differently directed and they have an individual character.
Increase or decrease of the level of the tested coordination parameter was observed between particular age
categories. In the majority of cases, it was an increase,
however, and often, that increase was statistically significant. It was revealed that the most dynamic and statistically significant development of the majority of the
CMA in young Greco-Roman wrestlers occurred between the age of 12–13 and 16–17. On the other hand,
the age, in which the stagnation and even the regress
of the level of the tested CMA was observed, was the
division between 13–15 years of age, and particularly
between 13–14 years of age.
In the competitors between 12 and 13 years of age,
the greatest average progress occurred in quick reaction (14.9%), the kinesthetic differentiation (10.4%) and
rhythm skills’ rating (10.1%). The least improvement was
recorded, on the other hand, in case of the movement
coupling (27.5%) and motor adaptability (7.6%). The
greatest average progress in the wrestlers between
16 and 17 years of age was recorded in the balance
of body (21.4%), kinesthetic differentiation (14.3% and
motor adaptability (13.1%) while the smallest changes
occurred in time-space orientation (4.1%) and quick reaction (4.9%) (Table 1).
In the category of wrestlers between 13 and 14
years of age, a certain stability of development was
observed and even decrease of the levels of some
assessed CMA. The significant improvement was not
– 77 –
– 78 –
* – significance on the level of p < 0.05; ** – p < 0.01
Quick reaction ability
14. Grab at Ditrich stick
21.23 ± 1.48
4.92 ± 0.66
9.43 ± 0.88
15.75 ± 0.75
72.1 ± 6.02
Movement coupling ability
10. Rearrangement of gymnastic sticks
11. Standing long jump with and without arm swing (%)
Body balance
12. Turns on a gymnastic bench
13. Standing on tiptoes
72.6 ± 4.30
15.21 ± 0.67
Time-space orientation ability
8. Jumps to target (%)
9. Runs to colourful balls
0.43 ± 0.10
0.39 ± 0.17
0.37 ± 0.09
0.45 ± 0.13
50.1 ± 4.47
66.4 ± 2.47
Motor adaptatability ability
2. Standing long jumps forwards and backwards (%)
3. 3 x 10 m run forwards and backwards (%)
Rhythm skills ability
4. Test 5 cycles – recreation of rhythm
5. Test 5 cycles – differentiation of rhythm
6. Rhythmical jumps – recreation of rhythm
7. Rhythmical jumps – differentiation of rhythm
63.2 ± 3.39
x ± SD
Kinesthetic differentiation ability
1. Long jumps at 50% of maximum capacity (%)
CMA
(test, indicator)
12 years of age
Table 1. The selected CMA indicators in Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 12–15 (x ± SD)
18.07 ± 1.26
5.38 ± 0.76
10.06 ± 1.11
14.34 ± 2.05
76.0 ± 9.40
78.8 ± 9.97
14.06 ± 1.94
0.40 ± 0.10
0.35 ± 0.13
0.31 ± 0.08
0.42 ± 0.20
54.1 ± 6.23
71.1 ± 7.89
69.8 ± 10.82
x ± SD
14.9**
9.4*
6.7*
9.0*
5.4
8.5*
7.6*
7.0*
10.3*
16.2**
6.7
8.0*
7.1*
10.4*
Changes
12–13 years
of age
(%)
13 years of age
18.01 ± 1.21
4.81 ± 0.85
8.31 ± 0.91
14.62 ± 1.49
74.1 ± 8.91
79.0 ± 9.40
14.12 ± 1.14
0.40 ± 0.07
0.36 ± 0.09
0.32 ± 0.08
0.40 ± 0.13
52.0 ± 4.93
70.2 ± 5.86
71.3 ± 6.64
x ± SD
0.3
– 10.6*
– 17.4**
– 2.0
– 2.5
0.3
–0.4
–
– 2.9
– 3.2
4.8
–3.9
–1.3
2.1
Changes
13–14 years
of age
(%)
14 years of age
17.43 ± 1.75
4.97 ± 0.72
8.52 ± 1.04
14.52 ± 1.14
77.2 ± 7.35
80.2 ± 7.81
13.97 ± 0.89
0.37 ± 0.11
0.35 ± 0.11
0.34 ± 0.06
0.38 ± 0.11
53.2 ± 5.49
69.4 ± 6.13
73.4 ± 5.93
x ± SD
3.2
3.3
2.5
0.7
4.2
1.5
1.1
7.5
2.8
– 6.3
5.0
2.3
– 1.1
2.9
Changes
14–15 years
of age
(%)
15 years of age
Dariusz Gierczuk, Vladimir Lyakh, Aneta Gierczuk
– 79 –
14.42 ± 1.12
78.1 ± 6.33
5.51 ± 0.63
10.03 ± 0.81
17.02 ± 1.68
Movement coupling ability
10. Rearrangement of gymnastic sticks
11. Standing long jump with and without arm swing (%)
Body balance
12. Turns on a gymnastic bench
13. Standing on tiptoes
Quick reaction ability
14. Grab at Ditrich stick
Significance of differences calculate for independent groups; *p < 0.05; ** – p < 0.01
82.0 ± 5.61
13.95 ± 0.71
Time-space orientation ability
8. Jumps to target (%)
9. Runs to colourful balls
0.34 ± 0.15
0.35 ± 0.10
0.34 ± 0.14
0.37 ± 0.09
56.8 ± 4.43
71.0 ± 6.59
Motor adaptability ability
2. Standing long jumps forwards and backwards (%)
3. 3 x 10 m run forwards and backwards (%)
Rhythm skills ability
4. Test 5 cycles – recreation of rhythm
5. Test 5 cycles – differentiation of rhythm
6. Rhythmical jumps – recreation of rhythm
7. Rhythmical jumps – differentiation of rhythm
75.1 ± 5.25
x ± SD
Kinesthetic differentiation ability
1. Long jumps at 50% of maximum capacity (%)
CMA
(test, indicator)
2.4
10.9*
17.7**
0.7
1.2
–2.2
0.1
8.1*
–
–
2.6
5.5*
2.3
2.3
Changes
15–16
years of
age
(%)
16 years of age
Table 2. Selected CMA indicators in Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 16–19 (x ± SD)
16.19 ± 1.98
6.38 ± 0.61
12.74 ± 2.46
13.45 ± 0.59
80.9 ± 6.37
87.0 ± 11.7
13.66 ± 0.93
0.28 ± 0.11
0.33 ± 0.08
0.36 ± 0.07
0.36 ± 0.18
60.8 ± 7.44
83.6 ± 7.92
85.8 ± 7.92
x ± SD
4.9
15.8**
27.0**
6.7*
3.6
6.1
2.1
17.6*
–5.7
5.9
2.7
7.0*
17.8**
14.3**
Changes
16–17years
of age
(%)
17 years of age
15.37 ± 2.09
6.47 ± 0.53
14.04 ± 3.49
13.31 ± 0.45
81.8 ± 7.72
91.6 ± 6.17
13.02 ± 1.38
0.26 ± 0.13
0.28 ± 0.10
0.30 ± 0.08
0.31 ± 0.11
62.1 ± 7.54
83.3 ± 5.84
87.0 ± 9.14
x ± SD
5.1
1.4
10.2*
1.0
1.1
5.3
4.7
7.1
15.2*
16.7*
13.9
2.1
–0.4
1.4
Changes
17–18 years
of age
(%)
18 years of age
13.44 ± 1.23
6.63 ± 0.59
15.48 ± 2.89
13.16 ± 0.52
82.7 ± 6.00
94.1 ± 7.02
12.84 ± 1.08
0.23 ± 0.12
0.25 ± 0.10
0.26 ± 0.07
0.25 ± 0.08
62.9 ± 7.14
84.6 ± 4.87
88.0 ± 6.90
x ± SD
12.6**
2.2
10.3*
1.1
1.1
2.7
1.4
11.5
10.7
13.3*
19.4*
1.3
1.6
1.2
Changes
18–19
years of
age
(%)
19 years of age
Changes in the level of coordination motor abilities in Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 12–19
Dariusz Gierczuk, Vladimir Lyakh, Aneta Gierczuk
recorded in any of the measured parameters, and in
some of them, particularly in the balance, the significant decrease of their levels occurred. In case of the
static balance, the worsening of the results amounted
to 17.4% and in dynamic balance it was 10.6%. Both
changes turned out to be statistically significant on the
level of p < 0.01.
Taking into account the period of 14–15 years of
age, a significant stagnation of the level of the CMA de-
100
velopment occurred since none of the changes turned
out to be statistically significant (p > 0.05).
In the successive age category i.e. 15–16 years of
age, the significant increase of the level of the static balance occurred (17.7%), as well as that of the dynamic
balance (10.9%). Moreover, the statistically significant
progress was recorded in individual parameters of motor adaptability (No 2) by 5.5%, and the rhythm skills’
rating (No 4) by 8.1% (Table 1).
Long jumps at 50% of maximum capacity
%
95
90
85,8
88.0
85
87.0
80
75
70
69,8
65
75,1
73,4
71,3
63,2
60
55
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
age
competitor with low level of abilities
the average of the group
Figure 1. Changes in the level of kinesthetic differentiation in Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 12–19
95
Standing long jump
%
83,3
85
84,6
83,6
75
65
71,1
69,4
71.0
70,2
66,4
55
12
13
the average of the group
14
15
16
competitor with low level
of abilities
17
18
age
competitor with high level of abilities
Figure 2. Changes in the level of motor adaptability in Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 12–19
– 80 –
19
Changes in the level of coordination motor abilities in Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 12–19
In the category of 16–17 years of age the increase of the level of development was recorded
in the majority of the CMA. It particularly referred
to the body balance both the static one where the
increase amounted to 27% and the dynamic one
where the increase was 15.8%. In both cases, the
changes were statistically significant on the level of
p < 0.01. Similarly high increase of the level was observed in case of kinesthetic differentiation (14.3%,
0,8
0,75
0,7
0,65
0,6
0,55
0,5
0,45
0,4
0,35
0,3
0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1
p < 0.01) and motor adaptability where the average
improvement was also over 13%. The significant increase was also noted in individual parameters of
the rhythm skills’ rating (No 4) by 17.6% and of movement coupling (No 10) by 6.75.
In the next category of 17–18 years of age, the
significant increase was recorded mostly in case of
the static balance (10.2%) and in two parameters of
the rhythm skills’ rating (Nos 5 and 6) where in the
Skipping of a J-M matt; differentiating of the rhythm
s
0,42
0,45
0.40
0,38
0,37
0,36
0,31
0,25
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
age
19
the averge of the group
competitor with low level of abilities
competitor with high level of abilities
Figure 3. Changes in the level of rhythm skills’ rating in Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 12–19
18,6
Run to colourful balls
s
17,6
16,6
15,6
15,21
14,6
14,06
14,12
13,97
13,95
13,6
12,6
13,66
13,02
12
13
14
15
16
17
the averge of the group
competitor with low level of abilities
competitor with high level of abilities
Figure 4. Changes in the level of time-space orientation in Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 12–19
– 81 –
18
12,84
19
age
Dariusz Gierczuk, Vladimir Lyakh, Aneta Gierczuk
first case, the increase was on the level of 15.2%
(p < 0.05) and in the second case it was 16.7%
(p < 0.05).
In the category of 18–19 years of age, the statistically significant increase was recorded only in the ability to react quickly by 12.6% (p < 0.01 and in the rhythm
skills’ rating i.e. parameter 6 by 13.3% and in parameter
7 by 19.4%. In both cases, the statistical significance
was on the level of p < 0.05 (Table 2).
On the basis of the attained study results, it was
revealed that between 12 and 19 years of age of the
18
Greco-Roman wrestlers the increase of the level of the
analyzed CMA occurred (Table 2). It was established
that the greatest increase occurred in the following abilities: rhythm skills’ rating (1.4–1.8 times), quick reaction
(1.6 times), dynamic and static balance (1.3–1.6 times),
kinesthetic differentiation (1.4 times), motor adaptability
(1.3 times), time-space orientation (1.2–1.3 times), and
movement coupling (1.2 times).
To better visualize the changes of the levels of CMA,
the attained results were depicted in the graphic form of
1–7 figures, in which the individual rate of the changes
Rearrangement of gymnastic sticks
s
17
16
15,75
15
14
14,62
14,52
14,42
14,34
13,45
13,31
13
13,16
age
12
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
the averge of the group
competitor with low level of abilities
competitor with high level of abilities
Figure 5. Changes in the level of movement coupling in Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 12–19
s
Standing on tiptoes
16
15,48
15
14
14,04
13
12,74
12
11
10
9
10,03
10,06
9,43
8,31
8,52
8
age
7
12
13
14
15
16
the averge of the group
competitor with low level of abilities
competitor with high level of abilities
Figure 6. Changes in the level of static balance in Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 12–19
– 82 –
17
18
19
Changes in the level of coordination motor abilities in Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 12–19
24
22
Grab at Ditrich stick
cm
21,23
20
18,07
18
17,43
18,01
17,02
16
16,19
14
12
12
13
14
15
16
17
15,37
13,44
18
age
19
the averge of the group
competitor with low level of abilities
competitor with high level of abilities
Figure 7. Changes in the level of quick reaction in Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 12–19
% 12
10.1
9.5
10
8
5.5
6
4.6
3.6
4
2.2
2
0
-1.8
12-13
13-14
14-15
15-16
16-17
17-18
18-19
Ğredni przyrost KZM miĊdzy poszczególnym wiekiem badanych
The average
increase in CMA between particular age groups of participants
wiek
Figure 8. Changes in the level of CMA in Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 12–19
of particular CMA in the competitors with a low and high
initial level of the assessed parameter were depicted.
Summing up the above results one can see that the
greatest average increase of the level of the diagnosed
CMA in young wrestlers occurred in the category of
12–13 years of age (9.5%) and in the category of 16–17
years of age (9.7%). The smaller progress was noted in
the period of 17–18 years of age where the increase of
the levels of the studied indicators amounted to 4.6%
and in the period of 18–19 years of age to 5.5%. The
lowest average improvement of the CMA occurred in
the studied competitors between 14 and 15 years of
age – 2.2% and between 15 and 16 years of age –
3.6%. In the period between 13 and 14 years of age,
the average decrease of the level of the assessed CMA
by 1.8% was observed (Figure. 8).
Discussion and conclusions
The analysis of the collected empirical material allowed formulating the conclusion that the development
of the specific CMA has a different dynamics in time, as
– 83 –
Dariusz Gierczuk, Vladimir Lyakh, Aneta Gierczuk
well as its individual character. Monitoring the dynamics
of the coordination potential on the basis of individual
tests shows that it is not possible to attain full information on the developmental changes of all the CMA.
Generalization of the attained results, however, made
it possible to observe certain characteristic tendencies
concerning the dynamics of the development of the
specific coordination abilities i.e. the periods of a more
dynamic development occurring during the process of
the wrestlers’ training.
It was proved that the period of 12–13 years of age
is a convenient period for the development of all the
CMA in wrestlers. In the age of 13–15 years, a period
of stability and even a slight regress of the level of the
coordination abilities occurs in wrestlers. Most probably
such a state is a result of the stage of puberty which
occurs at that time and is connected with disturbances
in the body proportions and the muscle mass which in
consequence cause differences in steering and regulation of the complex coordination movements. That phenomenon was confirmed by other authors [3, 16, 17].
In 16–17 years of age, another significant increase
of the coordination potential was observed, mostly in
body balance, kinaesthetic differentiation and motor
adaptability. The age of 17–18 turned out to be a period
favourable for the development of static balance abilities in wrestlers, and the time between 18–19 years of
age, was favourable for development of quick reaction,
rhythm skills’ rating and static body balance.
During the whole period of 12–19 years of age, no
significant increase of the indicators of such abilities like:
movement coupling (apart from the age category of 12–13
and 16–17 where No 10 parameter revealed its significant
improvement) occurred among the tested competitors, as
well as time-space orientation (apart from the period of
12–13 years of age) where in most of the cases no significant increase was observed. Most probably such a state
might be a consequence of the appearance of sensitive
periods for these abilities in different times of the ontogenesis of competitors. It might have been, for instance, the
time before 12 years of age [7, 8, 11, 12].
On the basis of the attained results, one can suspect that the development of the CMA, particularly
some of them, occurs during the whole period of training and is not limited to the age of the younger competitors. Hence, the best time, in which the majority of
the CMA are developing are the periods of 12–13 and
16–17 years of age.
The attained results remain in accordance with the
data of other authors studying the course of develop-
ment of the CMA in similar sections of the ontogenesis
of the competitors in other sports [7, 8, 18, 19].
In recent times, there appeared some studies
[2, 3, 11, 20, 21], in which the authors began to pay
closer attention to the presentation of individual results at the background of the average results of the
tested group, claiming that development is the process which never runs along “the average” lines. The
symptoms of the personalized differentiation of the
motor capabilities’ development, including the CMA,
result mostly from the differences in biological age,
the diversity of the rate of their development, as well
as the advancement and the sports level of a competitor. It highlights the individual dimension of the management of the process of developing the CMA during
years-long sports training [11].
The issue of sensitivity concerns not only CMA but
also different components of the human motor functionality. The phases of intensified sensitivity to external
stimuli called the sensitive periods do not coincide in
different motor abilities [11, 22, 23, 24]. The ways of determining these phases and thus the periods of their occurrence in ontogenesis belong to the most problematic
issues [7, 11, 12, 25]. It is a popular believe, however,
that the motor stimulation through targeted training is
mostly efficient in the periods of the accelerated natural
development of a particular ability in the ontogenesis of
the competitor [11, 12].
As numerous authors claim [1, 2, 3, 5, 8] determining the means and methods of coordinative preparation and including them into the training process on
every stage of training, and particularly in the sensitive periods, in the form of – for instance – coordination training should be an absolute necessity in
many sports, mostly in these of a complex structure
of movement.
Summing up the above solutions, the following conclusions were drawn:
1. Changes of the CMA levels in competitors aged
12–19 have a different dynamics and their development runs along individual lines.
2. The period in which the greatest positive changes
in the development of CMA occur in the wrestlers is
the age of 12–13 and 16–17.
3. The ability of the body balance, both static and
dynamic, undergoes large fluctuations due to the
competitors’ age.
4. Such abilities as rhythm skills’ rating, quick reaction
and static balance may be developed up to 19 years
of age.
– 84 –
Changes in the level of coordination motor abilities in Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 12–19
5. The coaches in wrestling should pay attention to the
development of the CMA in every stage of training,
and particularly in the periods of their greatest development.
LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Hirtz P (ed.): Koordinative Fähigkeiten im Schulsport.
Berlin, Volk und Wissen. 1985.
[2] Hirtz P: Zur interindividuellen Variabilität der motorischen
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1998: 95–106.
[3] Ljach WI: Kształtowanie zdolności motorycznych dzieci
i młodzieży. Warszawa, BT, COS, 2003.
[4] Sadowski J, Gierczuk D: Correlations between selected
coordination motor abilities and technical skills of GrecoRoman wrestlers aged 14–15. Archives of Budo, 2009;
5: 35–39.
[5] Sadowski J, Gierczuk D: Effectiveness of coordination
training in technical preparation of freestyle wrestlers at
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[6] Sadowski E: Основы тренировки координационнух
способности в восточныx единоборстваx [Basics of
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ZWWF, 2003.
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Sportowej – Instytut Sportu, 2003.
[8] Raczek J, Mynarski W, Ljach W: Kształtowanie i diagnozowanie koordynacyjnych zdolności motorycznych; in Studia
nad motorycznością ludzką. Katowice, AWF, 2002.
[9] Mleczko E: Z badań nad wpływem 10-dniowego zgrupowania szkoleniowego biegaczy na poziom elementarnych
predyspozycji koordynacyjnych. Międzynarodowa Konferencja Naukowa ,,Koordynacja ruchowa w sporcie”.
Poznań, AWF, 1990.
[10] Mleczko E: Przebieg i uwarunkowania rozwoju funkcjonalnego dzieci krakowskich między 7 a 14 rokiem życia.
Wydawnictwa Monograficzne Kraków, AWF, 1991; 44.
[11] Raczek J: Antropomotoryka. Warszawa, PZWL, 2010.
[12] Drabik J, Harsanyi L: Problemy z wyznaczeniem okresów
sensytywnych w rozwoju sprawności motorycznej. Sport
Wyczynowy, 1990; 7/8: 55–59.
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15 (4): 192–199.
[14] Mynarski W: Struktura wewnętrzna zdolności motorycznych dzieci i młodzieży w wieku 8–18 lat. Studia nad
motorycznością ludzką 2. Katowice, AWF, 2000.
[15] Sadowski J, Gierczuk D, Ljach W: Rzetelność i informatywność diagnostyczna testów sportowo-motorycznych
służących do oceny koordynacyjnych zdolności motorycznych w zapasach. Rocznik Naukowy; 10. Biała Podlaska,
ZWWF, 2003.
[16] Farfel W: Управление движениями в спорте [Controlling movements in sport] Moskwa, Физическая культура
и спорт [Physical Culture and Sport] , 1975.
[17] Biezrukich M: Центральные механизмы регуляции
движения [Central mechanisms of regulation of movement]; in Возрастная физиология (Физиология развития ребенка) [Age physiology (Physiology of the Child)].
Moskwa, Издательский центр Академия, 2002.
[18] Kubaszczyk A: Poziom koordynacyjnych zdolności motorycznych a sprawność specjalna koszykarzy na różnych
etapach szkolenia sportowego (praca doktorska). Katowice, AWF, 1996.
[19] Ljach W, I, Witkowski Z: Koordynacyjne zdolności motoryczne w piłce nożnej. Warszawa, Centralny Ośrodek
Sportu, 2004.
[20] Martin D, Nicolaus J: Die sportliche Leistungsfähigkeit
von Kindern Und Folgerungen für das Kindertraining.
Leistungssport, 1997, 5, 53–59.
[21] Ljach W, I, Majer M, Bujas P, Jaworski J: Przegląd prac
szkoły profesora Petera Hirtza dotykających problematyki
fenomenów rozwoju motorycznego człowieka. Antropomotoryka, 2009; 46: 101–112.
[22] Gużałowski A: Okresy krytyczne w rozwoju motoryki
dziecka. Sport Wyczynowy, 1977; 11–12: 24–27.
[23] Jagiełło W, Kalina R.M, Tkaczuk W: Age peculiarities of
speed and endurance development in young judo athletes. Biology of Sport, 2001; 18: 281–295.
[24] Jagiełło W., Kalina R.M., Tkaczuk W.: Development of
strength abilities in children and youth. Biology of Sport,
2004; 21 (4): 351–368.
[25] Jagiełło W, Kalina R, M: Properties of motor development
in young judokas. Journal of Human Kinetics, 2007; 17:
113–120.
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NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
THE SIZE OF ASYMMETRY IN RELATION
TO THE STRENGtH AND SPEED-STRENGTH INDICES
OF LOWER EXTREMITIES IN ALPINE SKIERS
Wielkość AsymetriI wskaźników siłowych
i szybkościowo-siłowych kończyn dolnych
u narciarzy zjazdowców
Przemysław Bujas**, Dariusz Tchórzewski***, Janusz Jaworski**
***PhD, Department of Kinesiology, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland
***PhD, Department of Theory and Methodology of Winter Sports, University School of Physical Education, Cracow,
Poland
Key words: functional asymmetry, lower limbs, skiers, strength abilities
Słowa kluczowe: asymetria funkcjonalna, kończyny dolne, narciarze, zdolności siłowe
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Introduction. The phenomenon of functional asymmetry in sports has significant influence on performance
in sports. In individual cases, especially in those sports disciplines that are highly symmetric, functional asymmetry may hamper the achievement of success. In addition, significant asymmetry may become a foundation
for numerous injuries.
Aim of the study. The aim of the study was to examine the level of functional asymmetry of the lower limbs
in alpine skiers.
Material and methods. Three adolescent girls and eight adolescent boys participated in the study. During
the tests, the level of the asymmetry of participants’ lower extremities was assessed while performing motor
tasks that required use of fitness abilities. The following indicators were studied: maximum force and the relative force developed under isometric contraction (knee joint and hip joint extensors) and kinematic indicators
describing a countermovement jump (CMJ) on the force platform. The results for dominant and non-dominant
limbs were analyzed separately.
Results. In most the subjects, the asymmetry coefficient was around 10% or exceeded this value. The
direction of asymmetry points to the stronger left knee extensor muscle. Individuals with knee extensors that
have higher asymmertry can be characterized by lower asymmetry of the hip extensors. Analysis of the mean
values indicates significant differences between the asymmetry coefficients determined for the hip joints and
the absence of such differences for the knee joints. Analysis of the jump results reveals symmetry index (SI)
values at the level of 20% or above, thus indicating significant asymmetry. The direction of the asymmetry
confirms the dominance of the left lower limb.
Conclusions. A significant asymmetry of strength abilities is characteristic for young alpine skiers. This
could become an obstacle for their further development, but it could also give direction for further actions
focused on achieving symmetry.
Wstęp. Asymetria funkcjonalna w sporcie jest zjawiskiem, które w istotny sposób wpływa na wynik. W symetrycznych dyscyplinach sportu – w indywidualnych przypadkach – jest bowiem przyczyną trudności w osiąganiu
sukcesów, a jej wysoki poziom może stanowić podłoże licznych kontuzji.
Cel pracy. Zbadanie poziomu asymetrii funkcjonalnej kończyn dolnych u narciarzy alpejczyków.
– 87 –
Przemysław Bujas, Dariusz Tchórzewski, Janusz Jaworski
Materiał i metody. W badaniach, w trakcie których określono poziom asymetrii w zadaniach ruchowych wymagających ujawnienia się zdolności kondycyjnych, wzięły udział 3 dziewczęta i 8 chłopców. Badanymi wskaźnikami
były: siła maksymalna i względna rozwijana w warunkach skurczu izometrycznego (prostowniki stawu kolanowego
i biodrowego) oraz kinematyczne wskaźniki opisujące wyskok CMJ na platformie. Wyniki analizowano oddzielnie
dla kończyny dominującej i niedominującej.
Wyniki. Współczynniki asymetrii u większości badanych oscylują wokół wartości 10% lub ją przekraczają,
przy czym kierunek asymetrii wskazuje na silniejsze mięśnie prostowniki lewego stawu kolanowego. Osoby o silniejszej asymetrii mięśni prostowników stawu kolanowego charakteryzują się mniejszą asymetrią prostowników
stawu biodrowego. Analiza średnich wskazuje na istotne różnice pomiędzy wskaźnikami określonymi dla stawów
biodrowych i brak takich różnic dla stawów kolanowych. Analiza wyskoku wskazuje na wartości SI (symmetry
index) na poziomie lub powyżej 20%, co świadczy o znaczącej asymetrii. Jej kierunek potwierdza dominację lewej
kończyny dolnej.
Wnioski. Młodzi narciarze alpejczycy charakteryzują się zaznaczoną asymetrią obszaru zdolności siłowych.
Może to być przeszkodą dalszego ich rozwoju, a zarazem wyznaczać kierunek dalszego postępowania skoncentrowanego na symetryzacji.
Introduction
Motor control is based on a fundamental regularity in
accordance to which the central nervous system controls the physical activity of the majority of the human
body’s muscles. In sports with asymmetric kinetic patterns, this relationship is even more significant; it deepens a natural preference (in most cases genetic) for the
use of one limb over the other in certain types of motor
activities. This preference leads to differences in functional indicators that characterize the speed, strength,
and coordination abilities of limbs, including the lower
extremities. The size of this asymmetry, which is a natural phenomenon resulting from a more frequent use of
the leading limb, may create the risk of injury as a result
of the overload of a particular limb [1, 2, 3].
In the lower limbs, the most widely studied is the
difference between the strength of the muscles of both
limbs. The difference may exist in a form of asymmetry
between the limbs or between the agonist-antagonist
muscle groups of these limbs [4]. Neumayr et al. [5]
determined the strength ratio between the ischiotibial
muscles and the quadriceps at the level of 0.57 to 0.60
in the group of master skiers. Thus, it was shown that
in these athletes the relationship between the 2 major groups of muscles was normal. The analysis of the
values of these differences is particularly important in
the context of the dominant and nondominant limbs and
has been confirmed in numerous papers [6, 7].
The dominance of lower or upper limbs on one side
of the body is a fairly common condition that must be
taken into account in the process of sports training,
whether we are dealing with unilateral or bilateral activities. In light of research, the asymmetry of the lower
limbs is a derivative of the lateralization of the upper
limbs, and is not as strongly noticeable as in the case
of the latter [8]. Despite the fact that everyday activities performed with the use of the lower limbs generally
require symmetrical actions, in sports we have many
forms of movements that involve the limbs asymmetrically (for example, jumps, throws and in disciplines
such as tennis, fencing, and martial arts) [9, 10, 11, 8].
The phenomenon of asymmetry and its degree play especially important roles in these cases. A substantial
amount of literature is available concerning the issue of
the preference of limbs in different activities, both symmetric and asymmetric [12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. However, as
the authors noticed, thus far skiing – and especially ski
turns – have not been a subject of researchers’ interest
in the context of asymmetry [17]. Asymmetry in skiing,
as with other disciplines, may be considered a potential
source of injury: significant differences in strength between agonist and antagonistic muscles might create
such a threat. A risk can also come from insufficient
levels of strength in muscles, which in terms of sports
development can be an obstacle [18, 19, 20]. The same
issue concerns the lateralization of the lower limbs,
which is the determination of which foot is dominant and
which is nondominant. This distinction has played – and
continues to play – a significant role even among highly
qualified athletes. A ski turn is a very complex motor
activity described by a number of factors: frequency,
duration, radius, and time of motor reaction in relationship to environmental factors (route, the quality of the
skiing surface, etc.) [17]. In competitve skiing, a turn is
determined by a system of gates and the results depend on passing them in turns in both directions. In light
of this, aspects of lateralization are very important. In
the classical technique, asymmetry played a large role
due to the large asymmetric load on the inner and the
– 88 –
The size of asymmetry in relation to the strength and speed-strength indices of lower extremities in alpine skiers
outer leg during a turn [17, 19, 21, 22, 23]. In the classical technique, a skier usually had, depending on to
the leg dominance, a “better” or “worse” turn. When the
technique changed to carving, the load on the legs during a turn became more equal, though the outer leg still
plays a crucial role in certain phases of a turn, as it carries more weight. The dominant leg is probably better in
controlling the final phase of a turn [17]. Therefore, according to the authors of this paper, the question arises
as to the status of functional asymmetry with regards to
strength in the era of the new technique. The studied
ground reaction forces triggered during ski turns are
derived from the different techniques, trail, snow condition, equipment, and skier’s level of capabilities and
skills (including muscle strength) [23]. Research shows
that modern skiing forces the athlete’s body to absorb
enormous compression because the ground reaction
forces far exceed the skier’s weight and depend on the
ski event: in slalom it is 0.5 and it is three times greater
in the giant slalom [21, 24].
Taking into account the aforementioned facts, the
presented research aimed to determine the value of the
asymmetry of force and speed-force indicators found
in the lower extremities. According to the presented
subject literature, asymmetry was considered a potentially unfavorable factor in achieving superior results in
sports performance.
Materials and methods
The research group consisted of 11 professional rightfooted alpine skiers: 8 adolescent boys (aged 15.33 ±
0.49 years, body height 171.8 ± 4.57 cm, weight 67.45
± 8.92 kg) and 3 adolescent girls (aged 14.74 ± 0.50
years, body height 159 ± 0.80 cm, weight 53.00 ± 8.71
kg). All participants were subject to a common system
of training. The training experience ranged from 6 to 8
years of training.
The following measurements were performed:
a) Measurement of maximal torque: (Mmax) of the following muscle groups in the static conditions:
– both knee extensors
– both hip extensors.
The force indicator values were estimated in conditions of isometric contraction. The study was conducted
on a measurement station modified by Chwała [25].
The measurement station utilized settings that assured
a constant value of angles in joints (the angles between
the symmetry axes of the thigh and the lower leg, as
well as the angles between the symmetry axes of thigh
and torso, were 90°). Force arms having constant value
were used while measuring the torque value of knee
extensors. Each attempt of isometric contraction began
after the beep, which was given by the researcher. The
measurements can be conducted only after a subject
loosens his or her muscles surrounding the joints.
The value of maximum torque of muscle were calculated using the formula:
Mmax = Fmax d; [Nm]
where:
Mmax–Value of the maximum torque of the measured
group of muscles,
Fmax –Recorded during the isometric contraction maximum force [N],
d –Arm of an external force [m].
The relative torques values were calculated from
the formula:
È Nm ˘
M
M = max ;
m
Í kg ˙
Î
˚
where:
Mw –The relative torque value of the measured group
of muscles
Mmax–Value of maximum torque [Nm]
m –Subject’s body weight [kg].
The measuring line that was used for measurements
consisted of tensometric force sensors (Hottinger) connected with an analog-digital card (14 bit AD/DA) and with
a PC. The data obtained were collected and analyzed by
computer software (AAD), an analog signals recorder.
b) Measurement of biomechanical values of a vertical
jump on the force platform with a swinging flexion
of the lower limbs at takeoff, without arm movement
– countermovement jump (CMJ) [26]
Calculations for each variant of a jump included:
– the maximum ground reaction forces of the left
and right leg measured in relationship to an unloaded platform
– the value of the ground reaction force impulse
measured for the left and right leg.
The study used two force platforms produced by
“JBA” Zb. Staniak with the MVJ3v51 software package.
The Waterloo Footedness Questionnaire Revised
was used to determine footedness [27]. The question-
– 89 –
Przemysław Bujas, Dariusz Tchórzewski, Janusz Jaworski
naire estimates the foot preference in two types of
tasks. Half the questions concerned preferences for
manipulating objects (mobilizing task); the other half
concerned the preferred foot in its supporting function
during the activity (stabilizing task).
All data from the questionnaire were counted according to the following model: the answers “always left,”
“usually left,” “equally,” “usually right,” and “always right”
were scored according to the scale from –2 to 2. The
authors, using the counting procedure proposed by Elias
et al. [28], included people who obtained from –7 to –20
points in the category of left-footed people; those who
obtained from –6 to 6 points to the category of ambidextrous people; and those with scores ranging from 7 to
20 points in the category of right-footed people [29]. The
results of all tested players ranged from 10 to 20 points.
R -L
SI =
¥ 100 ;
R +l
2
where:
R – The value of measurement of the right leg,
L – The value of measurement of the left leg,
Results
Basic characteristics of the values obtained during
the measurement of torque of respondents’ extensors
are presented in Tables 1 and 2. The measurement of
maximum and relative torque under isometric contraction accurately reflected the strength potential of the
athletes. Conducting the measurements for each limb
separately helped to determine the value of the asymmetry with regards to strength potential. The analysis
of measured indicators shows that the value of maximum force and the value of knee extensor torque are
not significantly different in the left and right limbs. The
coefficient of variation was found to have slightly higher
values in the left lower limb, and the mean values indicated higher values of strength for this limb. Thus, the
symmetry indices (SI) have negative values, and only
in a few individual cases approach or slightly exceeded
the limit value of 10%, which is conventionally assumed
as the level of relative symmetry [31].
Statistical Analysis
The Shapiro-Wilk test was used to determine whether
tested sample came from a normally distributed population. Basic statistics were calculated: mean, standard
deviation, and coefficient of variation. In order to determine the significance of differences between the results
obtained from the left and right limb, the Student’s t-test
was used. The obtained differences with p values less
then .05 were assumed to be statistically significant.
The following formula was used to calculate the
asymmetry index [30]:
Table 1. Basic statistics characterizing the measured variables for both joints
Knee
Right
Left
t- test
Variable
N
Mean
SD
CV
Mean
SD
CV
p
Fmax
11
737.18
133.28
18.08
753.45
157.21
20.87
0.41
Mmax
11
184.29
33.32
18.08
188.36
39.3
20.87
0.41
Mwzg
11
2.85
0.33
11.68
2.91
0.47
15.98
0.44
Hip
Right
Left
Variable
N
Mean
SD
CV
Mean
SD
CV
p
Fmax
11
851.64
93.58
10.99
787.27
90.97
11.55
0.035
Mmax
11
315.82
44.45
14.08
291.95
36.94
12.65
0.024
Mwzg
11
4.91
0.42
8.55
4.58
0.65
14.1
0.014
Fmax – maximal force; Mmax – maximal torque; Mwzg – relative force
– 90 –
The size of asymmetry in relation to the strength and speed-strength indices of lower extremities in alpine skiers
The results of vertical jumps done on two platforms
were used to determine the asymmetry of the takeoff
phase of the jump (Tables 3 and 4). Results achieved
by 2 out of the 11 subjects were not included in the
analysis, as the values obtained by them were impossible to interpret due to incorrect takeoff technique.
The difference between the data obtained from the
left and right leg, in light of the t-test, proved to be insignificant. A significant alternation in individual performance,
as seen in CV value levels of almost 22%, contributed to
such results. The analysis of individual differences between limbs showed varying levels of asymmetry, from
values close to 0% to almost 30%, which is close to the
value indicating significant asymmetry. Greater asymmetry was observed in the values of ground reaction force
than in values of force impulse.
The torque of the hip extensors (Table 1) shows an
opposite trend compared to the knee joint measurements. In the majority of respondents the dominant
were muscles of right limb, and the asymmetry of the
hip muscles was less noticeable, which could suggest
lower asymmetry indices (SI) values in the most subjects. However, an analysis of the results obtained using the t-test informed us that there was a significant
statistical difference between the muscles of the left
and right limbs. The coefficient of variation appeared
to have definitively lower values than was in the case
of the knee joint. The analysis of results achieved by
each individual subject led to the assumption that
people with greater asymmetry of the knee extensors
muscles have lower asymmetry of the hip extensors
(Table 2).
Table 2. The individual results of torque in tested muscle groups and the asymmetry indices calculated on their basis
Hip
Skier
Knee
Right
Left
Mmax
Mwzg
Mmax
Mwzg
1
284
4.98
303
5.31
2
330
5.21
306
3
365
4.23
4
343
5
SI Mmax
Right
Left
SI Mmax
Mmax
Mwzg
Mmax
Mwzg
–6.43
193
3.37
199
3.49
–3.31
4.82
7.64
177
2.8
197
3.11
–10.79
270
3.13
29.88
222
2.57
232
2.69
–4.5
5.3
341
5.27
0.64
225
3.48
240
3.71
–6.44
296
4.35
285
4.18
4.05
189
2.78
210
3.08
–10.38
6
351
4.85
297
4.11
16.46
194
2.68
203
2.8
–4.41
7
357
4.7
330
4.34
7.92
203
2.68
177
2.33
13.77
8
340
5.73
311
5.24
8.87
184
3.11
191
3.22
–3.46
9
320
4.95
305
4.71
4.93
189
2.92
177
2.73
6.69
10
229
4.78
212
4.42
7.7
121
2.52
103
2.14
16.28
11
253
5
247
4.88
2.45
126
2.5
140
2.77
–10.13
Mmax – maximal torque; Mwzg – relative force; SI – symmetry indices
Table 3. Basic statistics characterizing the measured variables in CMJ for each limb
Variable
N
Left leg
Right leg
t-test
Mean
SD
CV
Mean
SD
CV
p
Fmax [N]
9
520.56
154.58
29
519.78
114.00
21
0.98
I [N*s]
9
82.79
17.71
21
84.88
19.33
22
0.63
Fmax – maximal force; I – impulse
– 91 –
Przemysław Bujas, Dariusz Tchórzewski, Janusz Jaworski
Table 4. Individual values of biomechanical parameters characterizing countermovement jump on the force platform
Skier
Indicator
FLmax
FRmax
SI Fmax
IL
IR
SI I
1
497
645
25.92
85
114
29.15
2
749
617
–19.33
83
75
–10.13
3
481
552
13.75
73
83
12.82
4
598
506
–16.67
93
90
–3.28
5
728
634
–13.8
118
107
–9.78
6
446
546
20.16
91
100
9.42
7
267
295
9.96
59.1
58.9
–0.34
8
387
418
7.70
62
63
1.60
9
532
465
–13.44
81
73
–10.39
FLmax– maximal force left leg, FRmax – maximal force right leg, I L – impulse of left leg, I R – impulse of right leg, SI Fmax– symmetry indices of
maximal force, SI I – symmetry indices of impulses.
Discussion
In the modern technique of carving, almost all phases
of a turn demand a greater involvement of the inner ski
(and leg) than is required with the parallel technique.
The differences in the distribution of the load on both
skis during a turn result in different levels of ground reaction forces (lower in the inner legs; up to 1,500 N in
giant slalom), as well as in the differences in the angles
of joints in inner and outer limb [21]. Thus, more significant asymmetry of force, as well as asymmetry in
the rate of force generation (a correctly performed jump
technique allows for such interpretation of an impulse),
may underlie the problems in the full use of modern turn
techniques.
A lack of statistically significant differences in the
maximum torque developed in the knee as well as developed during the CMJ cannot be a decisive criterion
for stating a low level of asymmetry; nor can it be criterion for formulating the assertion on the small role of
bilateral differentiation. After all, the indicators of asymmetry in the two measurements took values that in individual cases exceeded 20%.
Authors who studied the asymmetry in representatives of different sports have obtained a variety of results. Even in such symmetrical discipline as track or
cycling, some of the authors recorded symmetry [32,
33] while others found asymmetry [34, 35, 36]. The relatively higher differentiation of force indicators between
the limbs, depending on the age of the athletes and the
levels of their performance, has been observed, for example, in football players [37].
The results of this paper are consistent with the
observations of Vaverka and Vodickova [17]. Vaverka
and Vodickova contrasted the lack of statistical differences with the recorded real asymmetry between the
forces generated during turns, depending on whether
the dominant or non-dominant limb was the outer limb
during the turn. A turn in the opposite direction to the
dominant limb was characterized by a longer duration,
a proportionally longer control phase compare to the
initiating phase, and by significantly higher values of the
generated force’s indicators. The aforementioned authors noted the fact that even slight differences can be
an important factor when dealing with very advanced
skiers. A discovered asymmetry can be the cause of
the fact that a turn on the non-dominant leg is more
like a traditional parallel turn while the turn on the dominant leg is characterized by a more balanced load of
both legs, which is characteristic for carving [17, 21, 23].
However, it should be noted that the observed disparities of ground reaction forces of the outer and inner leg
also resulted from the different angle positions of the
knees. Observations indicated that, given the differences in the knees angles at a time of measurement of
reaction forces, the measured expenditure of strength
in both lower limbs reached 80% of maximal isometric
force for each leg [38]. Lappi [23] notes that the inner
ski – and thus the inner leg – mainly provides sufficient
support for balance during a turn. The highest mean
– 92 –
The size of asymmetry in relation to the strength and speed-strength indices of lower extremities in alpine skiers
and peak values of the resultant forces were measured
in the knees and ankles in the outer leg during a turn to
the left [24]. According to the authors, asymmetry between the inner / outer leg can significantly contribute
to injuries in skiers, especially since the high torque in
the knee can lead to damage to ligaments [24, 23].
Conclusions
The obtained results help to show the existing asymmetry between the limbs in force indicators and speedforce indicators. A greater number of significant differences were observed between the hip extensors than
the knee extensors. The observed disparities are important in skiing because it is the group of ischiotibial
muscles in skiing that primarily counteracts the force
of gravity and centrifugal force aroused during the turn
phase of skiing. The assessment of the real impact of
force asymmetry on the efficiency of skiing requires
a deeper analysis and closed observation of a skier’s
behavior on snow (his or her technique and effectiveness). However, the observed indicators of asymmetry
can show the directions that ski coaches take to prepare
individual training for a skier, which will compensate for
deficits on both sides of the body in the analyzed area.
The appropriate level of strength in skiing as well as in
other sports is considered necessary for the full use of
athletes’ skills. Hence, the possible deficits in any of the
limbs can be considered an obstacle in the effective
mastery of the modern technique of skiing (carving).
This publication has set itself the goal of assessing only
one aspect of the asymmetry while pointing to areas in
which deficits in the strength of one side of the body
may impact the performance of an athlete. The modern
technique of a ski turn (especially for technical slalom
and giant slalom) makes symmetry highly desirable.
The presented results should provide a stimulus for indepth study based on the recording of the real forces
that are present in a ski turn.
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– 94 –
NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
SPORTS ASPECTS OF HIGH MOUNTAIN SKIING
SPORTOWE ASPEKTY NARCIARSTWA
WYSOKOGÓRSKIEGO
Szymon Krasicki*, Janusz Brudecki**, Magdalena Wójciak***
****Dr. Habil. Assoc. Prof., Department of Theory and Methodology of Winter Sports, University School of Physical
Education in Cracow, Poland
****PhD, Department of Anthropology, University School of Physical Education in Cracow, Poland
****MSc, University School of Physical Education in Cracow, Poland
Key words: high mountain skiing, recreation, sport
Słowa kluczowe: narciarstwo wysokogórskie, rekreacja, sport
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Aim of the study. High mountain skiing (alpine skiing) in its growing popularity was the main subject of
our research, which was purposed to characterize this winter sports activity especially from the perspective
of its professional undertaking.
Material and methods. The study, conducted on the basis of our own questionnaire, covered 109 respondents from Poland and Slovakia, who went in for amateur or professional high mountain skiing. Preceded by
specialist literature review, the survey has proved that in defining this sports genre we should consider its
professional aspect that had not been taken into account before.
Results. Orientation towards sports professionalism that has been observed in high mountain skiing these
years has indicated indirectly the upward trend in this sports genre. Compared with foreign professionals, Polish skiers were characterized by younger age and shorter experience than the Slovaks, who at the same time
presented higher level of sports competence. In addition it was observed that Polish professionals began their
preparations for winter seasons later and finished them earlier comparing to the Slovaks.
Conclusions. The respondents put accent on the need for further organizational and financial development,
pointing out that the driving force behind the progress in this area would be introducing most important Polish
ski competitions into the World Cup series.
Cel pracy. Impulsem do podjęcia badań, których celem była charakterystyka narciarstwa wysokogórskiego,
a zwłaszcza jego sportowej odmiany, był wzrost popularności tej dyscypliny sportów zimowych w ostatnich
latach.
Materiał i metody. W badaniu, które prowadzono posługując się autorskim kwestionariuszem ankiety, wzięło
udział 109 osób z Polski i Słowacji, uprawiających rekreacyjnie bądź zawodniczo narciarstwo wysokogórskie. Analiza
literatury przedmiotu oraz wyniki badań ankietowych wykazały, iż w definiowaniu narciarstwa wysokogórskiego
należy uwzględnić jego sportową odmianę, której uprzednio nie wyróżniano.
Wyniki. W odniesieniu do sportowego uprawiania narciarstwa wysokogórskiego coraz liczniejszy udział
w zawodach pośrednio świadczy o pojawieniu się tendencji wzrostowej. Na podstawie badań dotyczących sportowej odmiany narciarstwa wysokogórskiego wykazano także, iż polscy zawodnicy charakteryzują się młodszym
wiekiem oraz krótszym stażem niż Słowacy, którzy prezentują wyższy poziom sportowy. Przygotowania do sezonu
zimowego narciarzy w Polsce rozpoczynają się później i trwają krócej niż w Słowacji.
Wnioski. Respondenci wskazują, iż dalszy rozwój narciarstwa wysokogórskiego wymaga poprawy warunków
organizacyjnych i finansowych, do czego przyczyni się m.in. włączenie naszych najważniejszych zawodów do
cyklu Pucharu Świata.
– 95 –
Szymon Krasicki, Janusz Brudecki, Magdalena Wójciak
Introduction
Growing popularity of high mountain (alpine) skiing, regarded by the many as going back to the early days
of winter sports, has originated from the turn of the
19th and 20th centuries, when first winter expeditions of
skiers into the mountains took place – especially into
the Tatras, those days wild and inaccessible. In that
pioneer time period the interest of legendary skiers, S.
Barabasz, M. Zaruski and M. Karlowicz was focused
on conquering the mountains [1]. In contrast, modern
skiers can reach the mountains, both higher and lower,
without difficulties, using growing in number chairlifts
(e.g. well-developed system in Malopolska [2]). Lipiec
[3] commenting on winter activities of modern man suggests a trend “away from nature” (because of lifts, snow
groomers, artificial snow, etc.) in opposition to more evident “close to nature” approach. It can be assumed that
such negative aspects of “away from nature” skiing as
fatigue, tiredness and overcrowded routes near ski lifts
put it at a disadvantage in favor for “return to nature”.
At first glance, the determination to “return to nature” of alpine skiers seems to be difficult to understand,
being cultivated mainly by born and bred highlanders.
This oversimplified definition was particularized by
Życzkowski and Wala [4], who identified practicing alpine skiing with open area throughout the High Tatras,
the Western Tatras and the Bielianske Tatras. According
to the downhill skiing terminology, as open area they
considered the area outside prepared slopes. Further
distinguishes embraced alpine skiing and ski-extreme.
The above division refers firstly to the inputs of exposed
climbing and then to breaking conventions with difficulties of high degree. Wenerski [5], in turn, determines
alpine skiing by the number of ski activities whose have
much in common being practiced away from the lifts
and trails set out in a difficult area accessible only to
climbers. The above author distinguishes three forms:
alpine skiing activities (identified with the approach towards skiing in the pioneer time period of S. Barabasz
and M. Zaruski), extreme skiing, ski mountaineering.
According to the well-known German lexicon [6], alpine skiing is understood as all the alpine skiing pro­
jects undertaken outside the ski resorts. Tha Slovaks,
for example Dieek et al. [7], specify skialpinismus as
the mountain crossing on skis (alpine) terrain for skiing
outside prepared slopes. As the most difficult of these
sub-genres, they consider extreme skiing.
By adding to the above terms other sub-genres
practiced on the ski slopes outside, such as freeride,
heli-skiing (differing from the previous way of reaching the summit, for example, by using a helicopter) we
obtain significant diversity that still does not cover all
modern varieties of alpine skiing.
Aim of the study
The aim of this study was to characterize the alpine skiing sports with particular emphasis put on their practical aspects. We sought the answers for the below
questions:
1. What are the symptoms of the growing popularity of
alpine skiing sports?
2. What is the experience level of respondents as alpine skiers?
3. Do the respondents make specific preparations for
winter season and how was it previously?
4. Do they (and how often) take part in sports competitions?
5. How do the respondents perceive the current organizational and financial situation in alpine skiing and
the prospects for the further improvement of this
sports discipline?
Material and methods
As research methods we employed the analysis of
subject literature and diagnostic surveys [8]. The research tool (the questionnaire designed by the authors) consisted of 25 open and close questions. The
study was conducted in 2009 and in the first quarter
of 2010. With the help of the purposeful selection of
subjects a group of 109 study participants was chosen. After that the respondents were assigned into
five study groups according to their professional or
amateur practicing alpine skiing (AS), gender and nationality, respectively:
− amateurs practicing AS recreationally (RG), including 79 Polish skiers: (a) 65 men, (b) 14 women;
− professionals involved in practicing AS occupationally (SG), including 24 Polish skiers: (c) 15
men, (d) 9 women (all of them licensed by Polish
Mountaineering Association);
− professionals involved in practicing AS occupationally (SG), including (e) 6 Slovak male skiers.
It should be noted that the Slovaks were characterized by older age, wider experience level and higher
sports competence than Polish male and female professional skiers.
– 96 –
Sports aspects of high mountain skiing
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
primary
50%
secondary
40%
high level
30%
20%
10%
0%
Polish men – SG
Polish men – RG
Slovaks – SG
Polish women – RG Polish women – SG
Figure 1. Education level in analyzed groups
Table 1. Age of respondents (in years)
Polish men
(RG)
Polish men
(SG)
Slovaks
(SG)
Polish women
(RG)
Polish women
(SG)
30.58
27.13
29.50
25.29
22.11
minimum
20
18
21
20
17
maximum
50
37
42
35
36
Values
mean
The collected data, gathered in tables and
graphs, presents both absolute and relative values
(in percentages). In case of relative values as 100%
we regarded the total number of respondents in every
study group. Average age of practicing recreational
alpine skiing respondents was higher than competitors (Table 1).
The majority of men assigned to recreational group
got a university degree (71%), whereas in women it was
less than 43% (the remaining part of female RG was
formed of university students). Among Polish practitio-
ners two skiers had primary education – one in each
group (Figure 1). In sports groups, taken as a whole,
dominated secondary education.
Results
At the very beginning of the below presentation it should
be noted that our research results have been discussed
in part previously [9].
The data presented in Table 2 illustrates the evident
difference in the volume of alpine skiing experience (in
Table 2. Average alpine skiing experience (in years)
Study group
Years of practicing AS
recreationally
professionally
RG Polish men
5.6
–
RG Polish women
3.6
–
SG Slovaks
1.7
11.6
SG Polish men
2.0
3.5
SG Polish women
1.7
4.3
– 97 –
Szymon Krasicki, Janusz Brudecki, Magdalena Wójciak
years) to the advantage of Slovak professionals. The
Poles were characterized by almost three times lower
experience level than their southern neighbors. The
above could be put among the reasons for higher performance level of Slovak skiers. In addition, Polish professional groups presented similar volume of practicing
recreational alpine skiing amounting to about 2 years.
Average number of seasons devoted to training
alpine skiing by Polish professionals (22%) was two
years, whereas in female skiers strongly dominated
(57%) the time period of three years. By contrast, any
of the Slovaks did not train shorter than five years,
and most of them (67%) had practiced alpine skiing
for about eight years or longer. The Poles practicing
alpine skiing professionally could be that way described
as novices, because 67% of them were characterized
by a traineeship of less than three years, and some of
them (27%) only by one year. Polish women declared
a slightly longer period of time: competitive career: 55%
– from two to three years. Among the riders dominated
the Slovaks (83%) of five-year and longer experience.
Similar to other forms of physical activity performed
in difficult and dangerous winter conditions, alpine skiing
requires proper preparation, very important in sports of
typical strength characteristics. From Table 3 it appears
that in sports groups the preparation for the top racing
season began early, usually in May-June. It refers to
the vast majority of Slovaks (83%) and only to 20% of
Poles. Most Polish professionals both male (40%) and
female (44%) began their preparations in July-August.
It is evident that Slovak skiers carried on their preparations for major sports events in two summer months;
40% Polish male amateurs did so in September and
October. In addition, 44% of Polish female profes­sionals
declared that their preparations began in the autumn
season (September-October). Most respondents assigned to recreational groups, understandably, began
their preparations later than the professionals.
According to aforementioned, the endurance nature
of alpine skiing demands substantial work, calculated
on the basis of the number of workouts per week. Most
effective training, of course, was done by professionals. In the run-up (Table 4) the majority of Slovaks
(83%) declared their participation in five or more training units per week. This number was also inserted by
40% of Polish male participants. Among sportswomen
51% participated in three or four workouts per week.
The members of recreational groups, understandably,
prepared themselves to a lesser extent. The most frequently declared number of training was one-two workouts per week (73% women, 55% men).
In competition seasons the frequency of training
(Table 5) was re-arranged in comparison with the preparatory periods. Professionals declared much higher
frequency of trainings per week than amateurs did. This
difference might cause a significant variation. Five or
more workouts per week confirmed 67% of Slovak competitors and only 43% of Polish professionals. Slightly
higher percentage (50%) in this regard characterized
Polish female professionals.
Table 3. Month opening the preparatory period for winter season
Polish men
(RG)
Polish men
(SG)
Slovaks
(SG)
Polish women
(RG)
Polish women
(SG)
May, June
15%
20%
83%
7%
0%
July, August
14%
40%
17%
7%
44%
September, October
40%
26%
0%
21%
44%
November, December
31%
14%
0%
64%
11%
Months
Table 4. Frequency of training units per week in the preparatory period
Polish men
(RG)
Polish men
(SG)
Slovaks
(SG)
Polish women
(RG)
Polish women
(SG)
once or two times a week
55%
20%
0%
73%
38%
3–4 times a week
40%
40%
17%
27%
51%
5 times a week and more
5%
40%
83%
0%
13%
Frequency
– 98 –
Sports aspects of high mountain skiing
Table 5. Frequency of training units per week in competition season
Polish
men
(RG)
Polish
men
(SG)
Slovaks
(SG)
Polish
women
(RG)
Polish
women
(SG)
once or two times a week
64%
28%
17%
60%
26%
3–4 times a week
36%
28%
17%
40%
26%
5 times a week and more
0%
43%
67%
0%
50%
Frequency
Table 6. Average duration of training units (mean values)
Average duration of training units
Preparatory period
Starting season
Polish men (RG)
1 h 43 min
Polish men (RG)
1 h 45 min
Polish men (SG)
2h 2 min
Polish men (SG)
2 h 23 min
Slovaks (SG)
2 h 15 min
Slovaks (SG)
1 h 50 min
Polish women (RG)
1 h 45 min
Polish women (RG)
3 h 18 min
Polish women (SG)
1 h 40 min
Polish women (SG)
3 h 40 min
In the men’s professional racing groups the average
duration of training units in preparatory period was over
2 hours (Table 6). In recreational (RG) groups of women
and men the above volume was a little bit smaller and
amounted to about 1 hour and 45 minutes. In all Polish
groups average exercise time increased significantly
from start-up, for example in the group of Polish professionals it rose to 3 hours and 40 minutes. In the Slovaks
we observed an opposite trend.
As it was presented in Table 7, in run-ups dominated aerobic (oxygen) efforts, within the range of 120–
160 heart beats per minute. Efforts on higher intensity
level of over 160 HR/min were declared only by Polish
sportswomen (SG).
In competition season (Table 8) the intensity of training efforts was generally on slightly higher level than in
previous period. The dominant part of trainings formed
aerobic and anaerobic or mixed (aerobic-anaerobic)
Table 7. Intensity of training efforts during the preparatory period
HR/min
Polish men
(RG)
Polish men
(SG)
Slovaks
(SG)
Polish women
(RG)
Polish women
(SG)
<120
14%
0%
0%
0%
0%
120>140
43%
38%
33%
29%
0%
141–160
33%
54%
50%
71%
50%
>160
10%
8%
17%
0%
50%
Table 8. Intensity of training efforts during ski competition season
HR/min
Polish men
(RG)
Polish men
(SG)
Slovaks
(SG)
Polish women
(RG)
Polish women
(SG)
<120
6%
0%
0%
0%
0%
120–140
31%
29%
33%
0%
0%
141–160
53%
35%
67%
100%
0%
>160
10%
36%
0%
0%
100%
– 99 –
Szymon Krasicki, Janusz Brudecki, Magdalena Wójciak
exercises of high intensity level at heart rate above
160 beats per minute. Higher intensity level applied to
Polish athletes, not to the Slovaks.
Although alpine skiing is counted among typically
individual sports, only 30.2% of the total number of
respondents preferred individual workouts. The others
opted for group training. We did not notice the differences between the groups of professionals and amateurs, in contrast between women and men – yes. Only
19.5% of men were for individual workouts, while the
contrary opinion declared almost twice (37.3%) more
women than men.
Competitive and recreational group differed in affiliation of their respondents to sports organizations.
However the majority of amateurs (92%) declared their
membership in sports clubs, only 12.5% of professionals claimed to be club’s members.
The respondents apart from alpine skiing practiced
additionally other sports. Among the above dominated
cycling (practiced recreationally by 25% of all respondents and in competitive forms – by 36% of Slovak
competitors) and various types of motor sports: recreationally by 17% of all respondents, professionally by
28% of Slovak skiers.
Among the factors differentiating Polish alpine skiers the key differentiator was the participation of professionals and amateurs in skiing competitions. The
Slovaks in majority (67%) started 8 or more times in
the winter season. This number of appearances was
reported only by 50% of Polish professional sportsmen
and 29% of Polish professional sportswomen. Other respondents declared lower participation level. Amateurs,
understandably, declared even lower number of appearances (usually 1–3 in winter). Worth noting is
the fact that for practicing recreationally skiing series
of races under the name of the Polish Amateurs Cup
are organized, and the list of participants in the season
2009/2010 embraced 175 people, including 42 women.
According to Polish respondents of both genders
the most popular sports events were annual editions of
the Piotr Malinowski Memorial, in which almost 60% of
amateurs and professional enthusiasts of ski alpinism
took part. It should be mentioned that this annual competition became more popular recently (the edition in
the year 2006 was attended by 96 participants, in 2007
– there were 141 participants, in 2008 – the turnout was
177 people, and in 2009 in memorial took part 267 skiers: 147 professionals and 120 amateurs).
The respondents of our survey were asked to evaluate the current organizational and financial status of al-
pine ski sports. Most of them pointed out unsatisfactory
support by sports clubs (8 working) and organizational
structures of Polish Mountaineering Association, practical absence of financial resources, the lack of professional coaching, medical care, narrow range of media
coverage, especially of television.
Discussion
The authors [4, 6, 7], we have mentioned in the introduction to this paper, in formulating the definition of these
skiing activities as a key differentiator regarded the fact
of practicing alpine skiing outside dry or artificially prepared ski slopes without using chairlifts. Similar criteria
were also put forward by Philipp [10], who identified and
named a kind of skiing as a f r e e discipline (that is
f r e e s k i i n g). The before-mentioned authors have
pointed out that various forms (also called variants or
versions) of ski alpinism but did not distinguish it from
skiing as such.
Among other things that we have pondered in
this paper, important for defining ski alpinism is the
existence of highly qualified performers (in majority
long-serving and widely experienced practitioners),
who perceived themselves as competitive skiers (athletes) and sports professionals having been licensed
by Polish Mountaineering Association. It should be
noticed that they undertook long-lasting preparations, different in volume and intensity from typical
amateurs’ workouts. Worth mentioning seem to be
the series of official competitions, growing in number
of participants, both professionals and amateurs, involving them in long-term preparations. Relatively
long-lasting sports carriers should be also taken into
account in defining alpine skiing and distinguishing its
different sub-genres. Bearing the above variety of issues in mind, we would like to signal the current tendency to go back to the origins of Polish skiing competitions (first Polish ski race was held in the winter
season 1907–1908 in Slawsk near Lvov [11]).
Although the selection of subjects to our study was
intentional, the results especially in groups of professionals should be considered as representative, from
among 21 skiers licensed by Polish Mountaineering
Association 15 were our respondents (surveyed in the
season 2009/2010). To even greater extent (9 to 10 with
a license) the above refers to professionals.
A wide age range of enthusiasts practicing ski alpinism recreationally, especially in men, suggests that
in this type of physical activity age limitations do not
– 100 –
Sports aspects of high mountain skiing
constitute the barrier. To much lesser extent it refers to
top racing professionals, in their case the specific role
of age-selection barriers is evident.
High level of sports performance depends, among
other things, on long-lasting professional sports mastering skiing techniques and on participation in sports
competitions [12, 13, 14]. The much longer, almost three
times, length of sports carrier and better performance
level of the Slovaks, comparing to the Poles, confirm
the above regularity. However, considering the fact
that Polish ski alpinists were younger (in average more
than 2 years) than their rivals from Slovakia, it could be
assumed that they would reach higher level of sports
competence in the future.
Two factors: short time period of professional career (in average one year long) and relatively young
age of Polish ski alpinists have indicated that significant
increase in popularity of ski alpinism was quite a new
trend. Constant increase in participation in sports
events suggested an upward trend in the popularity of
ski alpinism.
High performance level may be achieved not only
by experienced skiers but also mastered in the laborious and well-planned preparatory process. In this regard, especially in the volume of workouts, the Slovaks
took a significant advantage over Polish competitive ski
alpinists. In our questionnaire we have documented the
compliance of Slovak skiers with the basic principle that
the boot volume of work decreases. Exercise intensity
did not differentiate the study groups, perhaps with the
exception of Polish professionals, who performed typical aerobic work.
The specificity of ski alpinism means taking into
account all the differences in facilities (wider and metal-edged skis, special bindings and poles, additional
equipment, etc.), in techniques (downhill technique
similar to that used in downhill skiing and in part mountaineering techniques), in the course profiles (longer
approaches and exits, bigger difference between the
summit and foot of a mountain, up to 1600–1800 m), in
the starting effort (duration varies from about 2 hours
to about 3 hours), but you can compare them to the
cross-country skiing. Comparing the preparation of
recreational ski alpinism competitors with Polish top ski
racers and runners [15, 16] clearly indicates that they
implement much smaller training loads and less often
participate in competitions.
When we add to these elements the opinions of alpine skiers, indicating practically the absence of organizational, financial and medical care, insufficient coach-
ing process, etc., we had the situation of ski alpinism in
the first decade of the 21st century portrayed. Despite
this unsatisfying state, some of the conclusions sounded quite optimistic. The respondents hoped that the
most important Polish competition (the Piotr Malinowski
Memorial) would be incorporated into the World Cup
series in the nearest future and then their appearance
and media coverage (especially of television) would be
more satisfactory. The respondents thought that it would
result in the increase in opportunities to find sponsors
and more evident inflow of funds. They also hoped to
include alpine skiing to the family of Olympic Sports. It
was worth emphasizing that these expectations could
be fulfilled under one condition: the higher sports level
of Polish professionals. The correctness of the above
suggestion was confirmed by the good results of Polish
classic skiers [17].
Asked about the pros and cons of ski alpinism,
the respondents mentioned at the very beginning the
unique possibility of observing wild nature, detaching
themselves from everyday life together with the opportunity to self-testing. Some of them wanted to keep élite
character of ski alpinism, others – quite the contrary
– opted for mass participation despite the fact that this
egalitarian approach sounded rather unrealistic because of the limited space for crowds of tourists visiting
the Polish Tatra Mountains. In this regard we would better move to our lower mountains. Would it be then high
or low mountain skiing?
Conclusions
Review of specialist literature and study results allowed
us to formulate the following conclusions:
1. In defining high-altitude skiing special stress should
be put on considering and distinguishing its different variations (sub-genres) on the backgrounds of
winter sports.
2. Diverse expectations for organizational development of high-altitude skiing (élite vs. mass) of respondents allow us to assume that these two aspects will remain unchanged.
3. For practicing recreational alpine skiing older age is
not explicit constraint as in case of professionals.
4. Achieving higher sports performance level by Polish
alpine skiers demands introducing serious changes
in preparation for competition seasons involving,
among others, putting additional burden of training
– the boot volume of work should be similar to the
rivals from Slovakia and ski runners.
– 101 –
Szymon Krasicki, Janusz Brudecki, Magdalena Wójciak
change in status may focus the interest of mass media, especially of television, on ski alpinism events
and skiers, being in consequence helpful in raising
sponsorship.
5. Improvement of unsatisfactory organizational and
financial situation in alpine skiing is possible, according to the survey respondents, in raising the
status of most important Polish competitions. This
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NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
FREE TIME AND THE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY OF NURSES
CZAS WOLNY A AKTYWNOŚĆ FIZYCZNA PIELĘGNIAREK
Józef Bergier*, Barbara Bergier**, Zofia Kubińska**
***Prof. Dr. Habil., The John Paul II State School of Higher Education, Biała Podlaska, Poland
***PhD, The John Paul II State School of Higher Education, Biała Podlaska, Poland
Key words: nurses, free time, physical activity, IPAQ
Słowa kluczowe: pielęgniarki, czas wolny, aktywność fizyczna, IPAQ
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Aim of the study. The main aim of the article is to present the physical activity of nurses depending on the
amount of free time they have. It has been presupposed that the nurses studied have a small amount of free
time that affects their physical activity.
Material and methods. 123 student nurses were examined with the use of The International Physical Activity
Questionnaire (IPAQ) – the long version.
Results. The obtained results revealed that the variety of the level of physical activity depended on the
amount of free time the respondents had. The nurses who had enough leisure time showed the highest level
of physical activity (5.075 MET), and the nurses who had too little time or a lack of free time showed a lower
level of physical activity, 4.813 and 4.477 MET respectively.
Conclusions. The majority of the respondents showed that they had a small amount of free time and a high level
of physical activity. The persons who had more free time showed a higher level of physical activity and got better
results in the majority of physical activities (sports and recreation), intensive physical activity and walking.
Cel pracy. Przedstawienie badań nad aktywnością fizyczną pielęgniarek w zależności od ilości wolnego czasu, którym dysponują. Zakłada się, że badane pielęgniarki mają do dyspozycji niewielką ilość wolnego czasu, co
wpływa na ich aktywność fizyczną.
Materiał i metody. W badaniu udział wzięły 123 osoby studiujące na kierunku pielęgniarstwo. Wykorzystano
Międzynarodowy Kwestionariusz Aktywności Fizycznej (IPAQ) – wersja długa.
Wyniki. Otrzymane rezultaty wskazują, iż zróżnicowanie poziomu aktywności fizycznej zależy od ilości wolnego
czasu, jakim dysponują respondentki. Uczestniczki badania, które deklarowały wystarczającą ilość wolnego czasu,
wykazywały najwyższy poziom aktywności fizycznej (5.075 MET), natomiast pielęgniarki, które miały zbyt mało
wolnego czasu lub stwierdzały brak czasu wolnego, wykazywały się niższym poziomem aktywności fizycznej,
odpowiednio 4,813 i 4,477 MET.
Wnioski. Większość badanych wykazywała małą ilość wolnego czasu i wysoki poziom aktywności fizycznej.
Osoby, które miały więcej wolnego czasu, wykazywały się wyższym poziom aktywności fizycznej i uzyskały lepsze
wyniki w większości ćwiczeń fizycznych (sport i rekreacja), w intensywnej aktywności fizycznej i w chodzeniu.
Introduction
A low level of physical activity in contemporary societies
is the one of the most important dilemmas. According to
The World Health Organization (WHO), lifestyle choices affect our health up to 50%, and physical activity is a
key element of lifestyle. Many authors consider the role
of physical activity as the fundamental component in
health maintenance [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].
The International Physical Activity Questionnaire by
Booth is a useful tool in studies on physical activity in
different countries. The Polish version of the question-
– 103 –
Józef Bergier, Barbara Bergier, Zofia Kubińska
naire was created by Biernat et al. [2, 6]. The advantage
of the tool is that it involves four domains of life: work,
housework, movement and sports, and recreation.
Results presented by Piątkowska revealed that the
Dutch, Danes and Germans are the most active, while
Polish people rank in the middle of the group [7].
Hitherto studies on the Polish population involved
school children and university students [8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
13, 14, 15]. In general, the results revealed a high level
of physical activity in Polish youth, up to a dozen or
so thousand MET – minutes per week, while an effort
above 3000 MET – minutes per week, qualified respondents for the group that showed a high level of physical
activity.
Studies on physical activity were also conducted on
different professions: soldiers, nurses, and policemen
[16, 17, 18, 19, 20].
The authors of this paper decided to examine the
issue of the physical activity of nurses with respect to
their spare time. It has been presupposed that nurses
have a small amount of free time, which determines the
amount of their physical activity.
Material and methods
Research was carried out in November 2010, 123 firstand second-year nursing students at The State School
of Higher Education in Biała Podlaska were examined.
The respondents were between 37 and 56 years old
with an average age of 43.5 years. Most of the nursing
students (87.8%) had completed secondary education,
percentage of respondents
80%
and 12.2% of them have completed higher education in
different disciplines.
The studies were conducted with the use of The
International Physical Activity Questionnaire (long version). Selected kinds of physical activity were classified on the basis of a consistent time of effort above 10
minutes.
Results
The examined nurses mostly showed a high level of
physical activity (73.2%), and 26.8% of them showed
moderate activity (Figure 1), while their average activity
was 4807.3 MET – minutes per week. In the opinion of
the majority of nurses (76.4%), they did not have much
free time, 12.2% of respondents did have enough leisure time, while in the case of 11.4%, the amount of free
time was insufficient (Figure 2).
It was stated that the level of nurses’ physical activity was diversified and depended on their amount of
free time. The nurses, who had enough leisure time,
showed the highest level of activity – 5.075 MET, those
whose free time was not sufficient – 4.813 MET, while
nurses who did not have free time – 4.477 MET. Similar
differences were observed in the case of intensive activity and walking (Table 1).
Taking different fields of physical activity into consideration, the nurses, who had enough free time, were
the most active with regard to participation in sports
and recreation, housework, and movement; MET values 603, 1.400, and 921, respectively (Table 2).
73.20%
70%
60%
50%
40%
26.80%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0%
high
moderate
low
the level of physical activity
Figure 1. The level of respondents’ physical activity
– 104 –
Free time and the physical activity of nurses
percentage of respondents
90%
76,40%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
12,20%
11,40%
10%
0%
sufficient
too small
not sufficient
the amount of free time
Figure 2. The amount of free time that respondents have
Table 1. The variety of physical activity done by the respondents depending on the amount of free time (post-hoc test)
Kind of physical activity*
The amount of free time
sufficient
too small
lack of free time
in general
5075.9
4813.6
4477.4
intensive
1809.3
1451.9
1377.9
moderate
1686.0
1948.9
1799.3
walking
1738.3
1444.7
1321.1
* The level of activity is expressed in MET units – minutes per week.
Table 2. The variety of field of respondents’ physical activity depending on the amount of free time (post-hoc test)
Field of physical activity*
The amount of free time
sufficient
too small
lack of free time
work
1853.2
2099.6
2219.0
movement
921.3
747.9
516.2
housework
1400.7
1002.0
808.6
recreation and sport
603.8 2,3
322.7 1
165.9 1
* The level of activity is expressed in MET units – minutes per week. The numbers in superscripts describe the number of variable with significant difference between averages (p < 0.05).
Respondents, who declared a lack of leisure time,
spent most of their time driving a car (470 minutes per
week) (Figure 3). Nurses who had a sufficient amount
of leisure time spent more time in passive rest, e.g. sitting (541 minutes per week), in comparison with those
who had a small amount or a lack of free time – 518 and
487 respectively (Figure 4).
Taking the issue of regular work into consideration,
the authors observed significant variety in this area. The
nurses who declared a lack of free time were the most nu-
– 105 –
Józef Bergier, Barbara Bergier, Zofia Kubińska
470.4
500
450
minutes per week
400
397.3
338.5
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
sufficient
too small
not sufficient
the amount of free time
Figure 3. Respondents’ time spent driving a car
5500
5419
minutes per week
5400
5300
5183
5200
5100
5000
4876
4900
4800
4700
4600
sufficient
too small
lack of free time
the amount of free time
Figure 4. Respondents’ time spent sitting
merous group in this field of activity, and the level of this
kind of activity was inversely proportional to the amount
of free time. The opposite situation was observed in the
case of the nurses’ sports and recreational activities.
Significant variety was revealed between respondents
who declared a sufficient amount of free time and those
who had no free time. In the case of activity in the field
of movement and housework, the nurses with a sufficient
amount of free time were the most numerous group but
the variety was not significant (Table 3).
The analysis of the level of physical activity with respect to respondents’ leisure time revealed that it is higher
in the case of nurses who had more free time. 80.0% of
respondents who declared a sufficient amount of leisure
time showed a high level of physical activity, while this percentage is lower in the case of nurses who had too little
time (73.4%) and lack of free time (64.3%) (Figure 5).
Summing up, it is worth noting that larger amounts
of free time affected the nurses’ physical activity to
a large extent.
– 106 –
Free time and the physical activity of nurses
Table 3. The structure of respondents’ physical activity depending on the amount of free time
The amount of free time
Field of physical activity*
sufficient
too little
lack of free time
34.0% 2,3
50.1% 1,3
62.2% 1,2
movement
24.0%
19.7%
12.8%
housework
30.5%
22.9%
20.5%
recreation and sport
11.5% 3
7.3%
4.5% 1
work
* The numbers in superscript describe the number of variable with significant difference between averages (p < 0.05).
high
percentage of respondents
90%
80%
80%
moderate
low
73.40%
64.30%
70%
60%
50%
35.70%
40%
30%
20%
20%
10%
0%
26.60%
0%
0%
sufficient
too small
0%
lack of free time
the amount of free time
Figure 5. The structure of respondents’ physical activity depending on the amount of free time
Discussion
The presented results reveal that nurses have a high
level of physical activity. However, other social groups
show a higher level of activity, e.g. school children, university students, or persons who serve in the armed
services [12, 11, 14, 13, 16, 17].
This situation is surely caused by the small amount
of free time the nurses have. It is worth noting that the
multitude of duties the nurses have is the reason for the
insufficient amount of leisure time. These duties include
working, studying, and housework.
Results presented in this article confirm this state.
Work and housework are the main fields of nurses’
physical activity. They practically do not participate in
sports and recreation.
It is worth noting that respondents, who have
enough free time show a higher level of physical activity and spend more time in sports and recreation. Thus,
the amount of free time is the important premise for the
level of physical activity.
Conclusions
Based on the results obtained with the use of The
International Physical Activity Questionnaire, the following conclusions on nurses’ physical activity depends on
the amount of free time they have.
1. The majority of nurses have too small an amount of
free time and show a high level of physical activity.
2. Persons who have more free time show higher levels of general physical activity.
– 107 –
Józef Bergier, Barbara Bergier, Zofia Kubińska
3. Respondents, who have more free time, get
better results in the majority of fields of physical
activity.
4. Significant differences, between nurses who have
enough free time and other groups, have been
observed in their participation in sports and recreation.
5. Persons, who have more free time, have better values in selected kinds of physical activity, e.g. intensive activity and walking.
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DISCUSSIONS
POLEMIKI  I  DYSKUSJE
NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
GLOBAL OBESITY IN THE 21ST CENTURY:
CAUSES, PREVENTION AND TREATMENTS
GLOBALNA OTYŁOŚĆ W XXI WIEKU:
PRZYCZYNY, ZAPOBIEGANIE, LECZENIE
Robert Girandola*
* Assoc. Prof., Department of Human and Evolutionary Biology, University of Southern CA, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
Key words: obesity, activity, diets
Słowa kluczowe: otyłość, aktywność, diety
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Obesity is now a global problem, affecting underdeveloped as well as industrialized nations. Approximately
500 million people in the world are considered to be overweight (BMI > 25). The prediction from the World
Health Organization is that there will be 2.3 billion overweight people in the world by 2015 [1]. The medical
and financial strain on nations will become unbearable in the future. The causes for this epidemic, as well as
possible solutions are discussed.
Otyłość jest dziś uznawana za problem ogólnoświatowy, z którym borykają się zarówno społeczeństwa
krajów gospodarczo nierozwiniętych, jak i uprzemysłowionych. Według danych szacunkowych już 500 milionów
mieszkańców naszego globu cierpi na otyłość (BMI > 25). Światowa Organizacji Zdrowa (WHO) prognozuje, iż
do 2015 roku liczba ta wzrośnie do 2,3 miliarda osób [1]. Medyczne i finansowe obciążenia okażą się w przyszłości nie do podźwignięcia. W artykule omówiono przyczyny epidemii otyłości, a także wskazano możliwe środki
zaradcze.
Introduction
Defining obesity
The most common method of evaluating correct weight
for height is the use of Body Mass Index (BMI) which is
weight in kg divided by height in meters2 (BMI = kg/m2).
The medical classification of the BMI scale is as follows:
• 18–24 = normal,
• 25–29 = overweight,
• 30–34 = obese,
• 35–39 = medically significant obesity,
• 40–44 = super obesity,
• 45–49 = morbid obesity.
While BMI is the global standard for determining the
level of abnormal weight for height, it is not foolproof.
There is no way to determine the quantity of fat and fat-free
mass unless one is able to measure body composition.
Techniques such as using skinfold calipers or hydrostatic
weighing to evaluate body composition are very popular.
However, they are limited to relatively small sample sizes
and cannot be used for large epidemiological studies.
Trends in adult obesity
Figure 1 displays the trend in obesity (BMI > 30) in the USA
since 1960’s. It is quite clear that there was a dramatic increase in obesity beginning in the mid 1970’s. Females
data show a difference of 5% higher than for males.
– 111 –
Robert Girandola
bolic rate (RMR) is primarily dependent on Fat Free
Mass. The algorithm used in our lab is that for every kg
FFM × 30 calories/24 hours. Therefore RMR is strongly
influenced by size, gender and genetics. Activity calories are the most variable. For an average male, who
weighs approximately 75 kg and has 15% body fat, we
would predict his RMR to be 1900 calories/day. For
an average female, who weighs 60 kg and has 25%
body fat, her predicted RMR would be 1350 calories/
day. Activity calories vary based upon intensity, duration and amount of muscle mass involved. Whole body
activities such as walking, jogging or swimming generally have a high caloric cost.
Listed below are the calorie values/hour for a 70kilogram individual.
Figure 1. Trends in adult obesity
Figure 2 displays the dramatic increase in the number of states in the USA that have at least 15–29% of
obese subjects. In 1990 there were no states that had
at least 20% of the population as obese. Twenty years
later, the number of states with at least 20% of the population with a BMI > 30 had increase to more than 40!
Those states with the highest number of obese subjects
include: Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, West Virginia,
Louisiana, Kentucky, Arkansas, South Carolina and North
Carolina. There appears to be a strong link between obesity and income level. Those earning 15,000 dollars/year
have at least 35% in the obese category, whereas those
earning 50,000 dollars/year have only 24.5% obese.
Mississippi is one of the poorest states in the USA and it
has the highest number of obese residents [2].
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Activity
hiking
gardening
dancing
walking 5.5 km/hour
weight lifting
running 8 km/hour
swimming
aerobics
basketball
•
•
•
•
Caloric equivalent of foods:
fat = 9.1 calories/g
CHO = 4.0 calories/g
protein = 4.0 calories/g
alcohol = 7.0 calories/g
Calories
370
330
330
280
220
590
510
460
440
Generally, foods with a high proportion of fat have
a much higher caloric density. For example, a baked
potato that weighs about 0.5 kg has a caloric value of
about 120. However, using about 0.25 kg of the potato,
cutting it up and frying it in oil (French fried potatoes)
increases the caloric value to about 400. The concept
of caloric density in foods is very important in trying to
minimize high caloric intake that most overweight individuals experience.
Figure 2. Obesity trends among U.S. adults
Caloric density
Caloric balance: the key to weight control
Caloric intake (food and beverages) represents caloric
intake, whereas caloric expenditure is mainly affected
by resting metabolic rate and activities. Resting meta-
•
•
•
•
– 112 –
Food
oils
butter
peanuts
chocolate
Calories/g
8.8
7.2
5.9
5.3
Global obesity in the 21ST century: causes, prevention and treatments
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
cheddar cheese
French fries
cheese pizza
halibut
baked potato
apple
carrots
spinach
4.0
3.1
3.0
1.2
1.1
0.6
0.4
0.2
It appears that food intake; especially the proliferation and availability of high caloric density foods may
be the primary environmental cause of the obesity epidemic. Listed below are some facts and products that
have been developed or modified over the past 50+
years in the USA.
1. 1978 < 20% of calories eaten outside the home;
1995 < 33% of calories eaten outside the home.
2. A 15-year study showed that 3700 young adults,
eating fast food more than twice a week, increased
risk of obesity by about 50%.
3. McDonalds history: 1950’s–60’s – French fries 56 g
= 200 calories: Fries now 210 g = 610 calories.
4. First Coca Cola offer = 6.5 ounces = 100 calories;
now 20 ounces = 260 calories.
5. Original McDonalds hamburger 270 calories, now
Big Mac = 570 calories.
6. All fast food offerings have dramatically increased
in both size and caloric value.
7. Jack in the Box – All American Jack (hamburger) =
850 calories.
8. Taco Bell beefy crunch burrito + twist + drink = 1390
calories.
9. Carl’s Junior foot (0.3 m) long includes 3 cheeseburgers on 12” (30 cm) roll = 850 calories.
10.Burger King 151 g beef stuffed with jalapenos +
cheese = 600 calories.
The fast food industry strategy to attract customers is as follows: Food should be cheap, tasty and
fast! Consumers generally prefer strong flavors in the
offerings, hence more salt and sugars are added.
Consumers want “value”. Hence, McDonalds developed the concept of “value meals”. These evolved into
Denny’s restaurants; “slam” meals, McDonalds value
meals.
Soft drinks are another major problem in the obesity
epidemic. In 1976 was the first year when Americans
drank more soda than milk. Statistics seem to show
that caloric soft drinks are a major issue in obesity.
Children aged 6–12 years who drank 9 ounces (0,5 l)
or more of soft drinks ingested 200 calories more/day.
Trends in obesity, especially childhood obesity, closely
mirror the rise in soft drink consumption. An extra coke,
32 ounces (1.8 l) = 400 calories. Research has also
shown that the body does not “register” liquid calories
as it does, solid food. Apparently the extra calories do
not seem to “count” the same as a similar caloric load
of solid food [3, 4].
In the middle of the 20th century in the USA the
majority of meals were eaten in the home, and usually
limited to just 3 meals/day. However, with the proliferation of fast food establishments, as well as food
being available 24/7, individuals are eating almost
nonstop. In the USA the diameter of plates has increased almost 20% over the past 20 years. Research
on the psychology of eating has clearly shown that
when people are offered larger amounts of food, they
will generally consume the total amount – despite the
fact that they might not “feel” that hungry. An interesting experiment was conducted at a restaurant serving “buffalo” (chicken) wings. At one set of tables, the
bones were cleared regularly, so the table appeared
clean. On another set of tables, bones were left on the
table in front of the patrons. Customers were allowed
to take and eat as many as they wished. People seated at tables that were cleared ate 20% more wings
compared to people whose tables were not cleared.
Thus, not “seeing” what they had eaten allowed them
to consume more food. In addition, when people were
offered a 400 calorie cookie for free when they exited,
those who had eaten more (but did not see the consumed wings) gladly accepted the cookie and began
to consume it immediately (4 NAN).
While the USA obesity epidemic began to increase
rapidly in the mid 1970’s, obesity in Asian countries began in the 1990’s. Obesity in China has been increasing very rapidly. It is estimated that there are approximately 200 million Chinese that are overweight (BMI
> 25) and about 75 million that are obese (BMI > 30).
Most of these obese individuals live in large urban settings such as Beijing and Shanghai. China has been
experiencing a major development with an increase in
salaries and availability of consumer goods. Whereas
25 years ago most Chinese rode bicycles or walked to
work, now they drive cars [5].
The invention and eventual proliferation of the automobile may be one of the single most important variables contributing to the obesity epidemic. In the USA
from 1960 to 1996, the number of people who walked
to work dropped from 6.4 to 4.5 million. From 1977 to
– 113 –
Robert Girandola
1995 the number of LOCAL miles driven (usually to the
market) went from 26 to 39 (42–64 km). Aside from automobiles the popularity of the television, computer and
Internet, video games, has made “couch potatoes” out
of millions of individuals [6].
While adult obesity has been and continues to be a
major problem, many physicians and researchers are
even more concerned about the rapid increase in childhood obesity.
Figure 3 represents the global obesity epidemic.
The percent of the population of each country that is
classified as overweight and obese is shown. Most of
the European countries, Canada, Mexico and the USA
have the greatest numbers for each category [7].
Figure 4 displays the rapid increase in childhood
obesity in the USA after the mid 1970’s. This is especially true for the 6–19 years age groups.
Figure 5 shows that the USA is not the only country experiencing problems of overweight and obese
children. Most of the western European countries
are experiencing approximately 15% obesity level for
children and adolescents. The primary reason that
children are becoming obese is almost the same as
for adults, too much food (especially fast foods and
caloric soft drinks) and insufficient physical activity. In
the 1980’s research in New England area implicated
television as the main culprit. Subsequent research
in other geographical locations implied the same [4].
Children, in today’s world are too busy watching TV,
playing video games and chatting on the internet to
participate in physical activity. A 2000 study conducted
on Polish children indicated that they were somewhat
less overweight and obese, as compared to a similar
population of French children [8].
Figure 3. Overweight and obesity in adult population of the
world (%)
Figure 5. Obesity in children globally
Figure 4. Trends in child and adolescent overweight
The prognosis for curbing the increasing rate of
obesity throughout the world is not very comforting.
Predictions by the WHO organizations indicate that the
number of overweight people in the world by the year
2015 will amount to almost 2.4 billion – an increase of
almost 1 billion from 2005. The number of obese individuals is predicted to increase to about 0.75 billion in
2015 an increase of almost 0.4 billion in 2005. What
is even more troubling is the exponential increase in
extreme obesity (BMI > 40). Figure 7 displays the rising
trend in extremely obese individuals since 2000.
– 114 –
Global obesity in the 21ST century: causes, prevention and treatments
Figure 6. Obesity in children: Polish population vs. French
population
Figure 7. Increasing prevalence of extreme obesity
Medical implications of obesity
Obese individuals are more likely to develop serious
medical problems, such as: type II diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and stroke. The dramatic increase in
the incidence of type II diabetes has paralleled the rise
in obesity. Abdominal fat and waist circumference appear to be the most significant correlates to the medical
complications. The risk for diabetes and cardiovascular problems are strongly tied to waist circumference:
males with waist circumferences of 94 cm (moderate
risk) or 102 cm (high risk); for females the values would
be 80 cm (risk) and 88 cm (high risk) [9]. The economic
impact of obesity in the near future is almost incomprehensible. In the USA obese patients who are eligible for
Medicare receive approximately 5000 dollars more per
year, due to various medical problems.
While it is clear that both diet and exercise play
a key role in the obesity epidemic, many researchers
believe that exercise or the lack thereof, may be the
key. These are some results that have been identified.
1. Individuals who maintain or increase physical activity show the best weight control over a period of
several years.
2. For maintenance of reduced body weight, more
than 60 minutes of moderate exercise (> 30–40%
of VO2max).
3. Physical activity can lower the risk of insulin resistance in type II diabetes.
4. The US Surgeon General states that > 60% of
American adults are not regularly physically active
and that 25% are not active at all.
5. The recommendation is that people should do at
least 30–60 min/day but it does not have to be con
tinuous. One can perform activity lasting at least 10
min/session and accumulate it throughout the day.
6. Abdominal fat is most affected by exercise.
7. A survey of 600 successful weight losers revealed
the following information about them:
a) 71% ate more fruits and vegetables,
b) 47% exercised at least 30 min/day,
c) 36% planned meals,
d) 19% lifted weights,
e) men who skipped workouts due to “lack of time”
wee 76% less likely to maintain weight loss.
Prevention appears to be the key in dealing with
obesity, especially in the very severe cases of morbid and super obesity. This is due to the fact that the
treatment for obesity appears to be very difficult, and
prior to surgical methods the prognosis was quite
poor. Pharmacotherapy is not very successful, as
the few drugs that have been approved for weight
reduction have been found to elicit a weight loss of
< 3–5 kg/year, over and above the placebo.
Bariatric surgery has been used extensively in the
USA and globally. The most common surgery is the
lap band where weight loss occurs due to appetite
suppression. However, more involved surgeries involve both gastric and intestinal bypass. In these
procedures patients will lose weight due to appetite
suppression and malabsorption.
The most disturbing aspect of the obesity epidemic
is that it has affected almost every country on earth.
Prior to the 1980’s obesity in Asia, Africa, India and
Eastern Europe was almost unheard of. Just 20 years
later we have crisis levels in many of these countries.
Some of the smaller nations are attempting to curtail
junk foods and incorporate some form of mandatory
activity. Unfortunately these methods have not proven
to be successful in larger countries and democracies
– 115 –
Robert Girandola
where people are too stubborn to change behavior.
The technological world has given us the computer, the
Internet, all forms of mechanical transportation that are
affordable for most. Unfortunately this technology has
also robbed humans of the need to be outdoors and
active.
LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO [1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Snow S: There will be 2.3 billion overweight in 2015. http://
www.articlesbase.com.
U.S. Obesity Trends. Data from National Health and Nutrition Survey (NHANES), 2010.
Soft Drinks May Increase the Risk of Childhood Obesity.
Science Daily, 2005, May 11.
Eating Behaviors. Nutrition Action Health Letter, 2011,
March–April.
Wu Y: Overweight and obesity in China. BMJ, 2006; 333:
362.
Lopez RP, Hynes HP: Obesity, physical activity, and the
urban environment, public health research needs. Environ
Health, 2006; 5: 25–30.
[7]
[8]
[9]
– 116 –
deOnis M, Blossner M, Borghi E: Global prevalence and
trends of overweight and obesity among preschool children. Amer J Clin Nutr, 2010; 92: 1257–1264.
Matecka-Tendera E, Klimek K, Matusik P, OlszaneckaGlinianowicz M, Lehningue Y: Obesity and overweight
prevalence in Polish 7- to 9-year-old children. Obesity
Res, 2005; 13: 964–968.
McInnis KJ: Exercise in the modification of cardiovascular
disease risk: biologic mechanisms. Coronary Art Disease,
2000; 11: 111–116.
NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
DEVELOPMENT OF GEROKINESIOLOGY:
ONE OF THE GREATEST CHALLENGES FACED
BY SPORT SCIENCES
ROZWÓJ GEROKINEZJOLOGII:
JEDNO Z NAJPILNIEJSZYCH WYZWAŃ
DLA NAUK O KULTURZE FIZYCZNEJ
Wiesław Osiński*, Robert Szeklicki**
***Prof. Dr Habil., University School of Physical Education, Poznan, Poland
***Dr. Habil., University School of Physical Education, Poznan, Poland
Key words: aging, physical activity, staff education, scientific research
Słowa kluczowe: starzenie się, aktywność fizyczna, kształcenie kadr, badania naukowe
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE First, the paper analyzes demographic data and consequences related to aging. With regard to the 27 European Union (EU) member states, a projection has been made that by 2060 the ratios of children (0–14 years)
and the elderly (65+ years) to adults at the working age will be 25.0% and 53.5%, respectively. Among the
EU member states, Poland is expected to have the highest percent of people above 65 years of age (36.18%).
At present, intensive research developments can be observed related to the prevention of early functional impairment and improvement of the longevity and quality of life. Secondly, the paper presents the World Health
Organization’s (WHO) arguments for endorsement of physical activity (PA) of the elderly, the consequences of
a sedentary lifestyle, and recommendations of PA programs for the elderly.
Despite the disturbing prognosis, the significance of healthcare, PA and lifestyle of the elderly seem to be
neglected in Poland. The geriatric health service is underestimated and, in comparison with other countries,
the number of geriatrists is dramatically low. Problems related to the PA of the elderly should be given comprehensive consideration by the Polish parliament, national government, and local authorities. The EU guidelines are, in fact, not followed in this area. There is a very urgent need in Poland to develop suitable training
of staff qualified to carry out PA programs for the elderly as well as to intensify relevant research. It will also
be important to popularize the term “gerokinesiology”, already well known in other countries, which refers to
a scientific discipline dealing with recognition of health aspects of PA as well as with organization and endorsement of PA programs for the elderly.
W artykule scharakteryzowano najpierw dane demograficzne dotyczące starzenia się ludności oraz konsekwencje tego zjawiska. Na podstawie przeprowadzonych dla 27 państw Unii Europejskiej (UE) obliczeń prognozuje
się, iż liczba osób w wieku od 0 do 14 lat oraz osób w wieku 65+ w stosunku do liczby osób w tzw. wieku produkcyjnym (15–64 lat) w roku 2060 wyniesie odpowiednio: 25,0% oraz 53,5%. Polska będzie wobec tego krajem
o najwyższym wśród państw UE odsetku osób powyżej 65. roku życia (36,18%). Bardzo intensywnie rozwijają
się obecnie badania ukierunkowane na prewencję przedwczesnej funkcjonalnej niewydolności oraz zwiększenie
długości i jakości życia. W artykule uzasadniono również potrzebę wspierania aktywności fizycznej (AF) osób starszych zgodnie z wytycznymi Światowej Organizacji Zdrowia (WHO), przedstawiono także konsekwencje sedenterii
trybu życia oraz zalecenia do programów aktywności fizycznej dla osób starszych.
– 117 –
Wiesław Osiński, Robert Szeklicki
Pomimo niepokojących prognoz, w Polsce nie nadaje się należytej rangi sprawom troski o zdrowie, aktywności
fizycznej oraz zagadnieniom stylu życia osób w wieku starszym. Opieka geriatryczna jest niedoceniana, a liczba
geriatrów w porównaniu z innymi krajami europejskimi jest drastycznie niska. Problemy AF osób starszych winny
być rozpatrywane w sposób całościowy na poziomie parlamentu, rządu oraz lokalnym. Nie są w tym zakresie
realizowane wytyczne UE. Istnieje zatem pilna potrzeba rozwoju kształcenia kadr przygotowanych do realizacji
programów AF osób starszych oraz wydatnego zintensyfikowania na te potrzeby badań naukowych. Warto też
upowszechnić w Polsce funkcjonujący w kilku krajach termin „gerokinezjologia” [1] na określenie dyscypliny naukowej ukierunkowanej na rozpoznanie, w jaki sposób aktywność fizyczna wpływa na różne aspekty zdrowia i na
samopoczucie, a także skoncentrowanej na kwestiach organizacji i wspierania programów aktywności fizycznej
osób starszych.
1. Aging population: demographic data
and consequences
Progress in medical technology, health care, nutrition,
sanitation, and hygiene have contributed to lower indexes of premature mortality. People are living much
longer, and the population of those over 65 years of
age is growing extremely fast. Life expectancy in developed countries is now about 80 years; since 1900 it has
grown by about 25–30 years. It is anticipated that while
in 2020, the percent of the population over 65 years of
age will be greater than 20% only in four countries in
the world, in 2060 this proportion will amount already
above 30% in a large number of countries (including
Poland). If you calculate the number of people aged 0
to 14 years and aged 65+ compared to the number of
people at the working age (from 15–64 years) in the
current 27 European Union states, then in 2008 the indexes were still quite similar and amounted to 23.3%
Figure 1. Expectations for proportion index of elderly (65+ years)
and children (0–14 years) to adults at working age (15–64 years)
according to Eurostat research [2], as modified by the authors
and 25.4%, respectively, but in 2060, it is predicted that
they will be 25.0%, and 53.5%, respectively [2]. This
complete change of proportion of children and the elderly in the EU population is shown in Figure 1. This
phenomenon is referred to as an ”inverted demographic pyramid.”
Between 1950–2000 the mean age (median) of
the total world population grew on average by about
3 years and was 26.5 years, but in the same period
in developed countries, this age increased by 9 years
and was 37.4 years. It is predicted that in 2060, the
median age in the 27 European Union states will be
47.9 years, and in Poland, about 55.0 years [2]. At
the same time, due to higher mortality of men, aging causes the growing problem of the feminization
of the population. For example, in the world, it is only
81 men aged over 60 years who account for 100
women; in northern Europe, it is even only 58 men [3].
Demographers agree that while in 2008 in Poland the
number of retired people (65+) calculated for 100 people was 13.46, in 2060 it will increase to 36.18% [2]. In
other words, the (relative) number of people of retirement age (65+) will almost triple, and more than double in absolute values (from 5,131,000 to 11,265,000).
As anticipated (Figure 2), in 2060 the highest percent
of people in the EU 27 over the age of 65 years will
be in Poland (a predicted average for the EU in 2060:
29.95%). At the same time, the number of people aged
over 80 years in Poland will increase almost four times
(from about 1,140,000 to about 4,072,000), assuming
the overall population decline of more than 7.5 million
people (from about 38,115,000 to about 31,139,000).
The multilateral social, economic, and medical effects
of these processes and changes in social policy must
be well thought out.
A large number of elderly people will increase expenses for social and health care and simultaneously
create new needs previously unknown on this scale.
It may be observed in the Western Europe countries,
whose populations began to age much earlier. We also
– 118 –
Development of gerokinesiology: one of the greatest challenges faced by sport sciences
Figure 2. Percentage of people over 65 years in the whole society
in 2008 and 2060 according to Eurostat research [2], modified
by the authors
hope that in Poland the social situation will force and
the economic situation will enable the development of
a huge market in the area of various PA forms aimed
at the specific needs of elderly people. Undoubtedly,
along with the longer life expectancy of Poles, increasing prosperity and radical improvement of the education structure, the aspirations of elderly people will also
increase in many areas.
Life expectancy is highly differentiated among individuals and within populations. Many factors acting
in parallel have significant and complex effects on it.
According to the reliable sources, the oldest human so
far has been Jeanne Calment, an inhabitant of France,
who died in August 1997 at the age of 122 years and 164
days. Certainly, a large range of variability determining
life expectancy is affected by genetic factors as well as
the type of diet, climate, lifestyle (including undertaking PA), hygiene, social environment, and health care.
It has turned out that on the scale of population, the
level of medicine development in a country, although
of great importance, is far less significant than it was
commonly believed. The lifespan of people in many
African countries is dramatically short and the average life expectancy is about 35–38 years (for instance,
Botswana and Rwanda). The Japanese live exceptionally long lives: the average age for men is 77.7 years
and 84.3 years for women (2011). In Europe, life expectancy is particularly long in France, the Netherlands
and Sweden, while women live approximately 6 years
longer than men. In recent years, a clear increase in
life expectancy has also been observed in Poland, but
the exceptionally large disproportion (nearly 8 years)
between men and women is highly alarming. However,
the indexes of anticipated life expectancy look promising. In 2060, it is expected for the 27 EU states that the
average life expectancy for women will be 89.0 years
and 84.5 years for men. For Poland, it will be 88.0 years
and 82.5 years, respectively. The birth rate for the EU
states will amount to 1.68 on average, while the lowest value among the 27 EU states is expected to be in
Poland: 1.49 [2].
It is predicted that in the years 2008–2030, the
Polish population will decrease by about 3%. At the
same time, the population at the “pre-working age” (up
to 14 years) will decline by 25%, at the working age
(from 15 to 64 years) will be lower by 18%, while the
number of people aged 65+ (at the retirement age) will
increase by as much as 66%. In the years 2008–2030
there will be approximately 3,368,000 more people
aged over 65 years. In 2030, nearly 1 in 4 Poles (23%)
will be retired [2]. The consequences of this situation
are largely unpredictable, but definitely they will affect
all spheres of life, and societies will have to face new
and serious challenges. Already today it is necessary
in particular to look for ways leading to the promotion of the concept of active life expectancy without
significant ailment or disability. Katz and colleagues
[4] pointed out that these are the expected years of
life, characterized by vigor, complete physical, emotional, and intellectual efficiency, and functional wellbeing. The point is not only about the length of life,
but perhaps above all else, its quality in the period of
advanced years.
2. Recommendations to increase physical
activity for older people
In 1996, WHO released “The Heidelberg Guidelines
for Promoting Physical Activity Among Older Persons”
[5], which included the following societal reasons for
increased PA:
– 119 –
Wiesław Osiński, Robert Szeklicki
but also maintain independence and a good quality of
life into old age.
The frame below includes the general findings of
a large number of studies conducted on the effects of
reduced PA (hypodynamics, hypokinesia, sedentary
lifestyle, and decreased muscular activity) [8]:
SOCIAL BENEFITS OF PROMOTING PHYSICAL
ACTIVITY FOR OLDER PERSONS
(according to WHO)
•
•
•
Reduced health and social care costs: Physical
inactivity and sedentary living contribute to a decrease in independence and the onset of many
chronic diseases. Physically active lifestyles can
help postpone the onset of physical frailty and disease thereby significantly reducing health and social care costs.
Enhancing the productivity of older adults: Older
individuals have much to contribute to society.
Physically active lifestyles help older adults maintain functional independence and optimize the extent to which they are able to actively participate in
society.
Promoting a positive and active image of older persons: A society that promotes a physically active lifestyle for older adults is more likely to reap the benefits
of the wealth of experience and wisdom possessed
by the older individuals in the community.
CONSEQUENCES OF REDUCED PHYSICAL
ACTIVITY
The most effective methods of promoting PA are
sought after almost all over the world. It is assumed that
contemporary humans should be on average more active than just doing activities of daily living, with a value
equivalent to expend at least 1000 kcal (4200 kJ) per
week [6]. PA can be very moderate, but should be done
for at least 30–40 minutes a day, 5–7 days a week. It
was shown too that health benefits might also result
from the effects of occasional but intense physical activities. Thus, exercise need not be done in a continuous and organized way [7].
Many studies have focused on the prevention of
premature functional failure, reduction of morbidity
rate, and increase in length and quality of human life.
Research has been conducted in particular on the effects of PA on the reduction of heart disease, obesity,
hypertension, cancer, diabetes, osteoporosis, depression, falls and various injuries, and others. In improving
muscle strength and endurance, PA may play a special role for elderly people with different fitness constraints. The research carried out in the United States
at the Center for Disease Control (CDC) indicates that
each dollar invested in PA (time + equipment) saves
$3.20, which would otherwise be spent on medical
care. Therefore, the CDC declared, “A sedentary lifestyle is hazardous to your health.” In 1999, during the
International Year of Older Persons, WHO promoted
the global initiative of popularizing the benefits of walking for the elderly. People want not only to live longer
1) Muscle atrophy – reduced muscle strength and endurance, poor vascularization, lower levels of energy substrates, worse functional capacity, increased
risk of falls in elderly persons.
2) Osteoporosis – reduced bone mineralization, pain,
and bone fractures; resorption of calcium from the
bones.
3) Impaired metabolic functions and lowered metabolism – risk of type 2 diabetes, increased body fat and
risk of obesity, higher LDL cholesterol in the blood,
impaired glucose tolerance, disrupted digestive
function and intestinal rhythm.
4) Reduced specific immune system and innate immune system – decreased number and activity of
natural killers, increased risk of cancers of such as
breast, prostate and colon, increased morbidity and
mortality rates.
5) Decrease in physical capacity – reduced maximum
lung ventilation, reduced vital lung capacity.
6) Increased risk of cardiovascular disease – development of arterial hypertension, impaired cardiopulmonary function.
7) Negative impact on mental health – impaired cognitive function, risk of senile dementia, increased levels of anxiety and depression, malaise, susceptibility to stress, low self-esteem, poorer sleep quality.
WHO guidelines for promoting PA pointed out that
although a physically active lifestyle can be led without
participation in any formal training program, in many
industrialized societies it is only organized programs
that make it possible to maintain physical activity [5].
Describing the main characteristics of PA programs for
elderly people, WHO recommended paying attention to
the following:
– 120 –
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
PROGRAMS FOR ELDERLY PEOPLE (according to
WHO)
•
•
Program may include individual and/or group activity in supervised or unsupervised conditions.
Different benefits are associated with different types
of physical activity, such as: stretching, relaxation,
health gymnastics, aerobics, strength training and
more.
Development of gerokinesiology: one of the greatest challenges faced by sport sciences
•
•
•
•
The emphasis should be on easy and medium forms
of physical activity (for example, walking, dancing,
climbing stairs, swimming, cycling, chair exercises,
exercises in bed, etc.).
Exercises must meet the expectations and needs of
individuals and groups.
Exercises should be relaxing and enjoyable. Have
fun!
You should exercise regularly, if possible – everyday.
In the case of PA programs targeted at older people
it is worth remembering that in recent years the area of
recommendations for physical exercise has expanded
greatly, while the range of absolute contraindications
has decreased. Limited PA and reduced physical fitness are indirect or direct causes of “diseases of affluence,” such as (1) metabolic disease – atherosclerosis,
obesity, diabetes, (2) diseases of the nervous system
overload – neurosis and mental illness, neuroendocrine
disorders, hypertension, (3) traumatic illness – falls at
home and at work, car accidents, sensory disturbances. Many of these diseases are exposed with particular
force at old age. PA can be a great component of prevention and therapy, but there is also a large group of
other diseases in which the role of physical exercise is
widely appreciated. In case of serious injuries, disability
and chronic diseases, physical exercise is part of clinical
medicine; PA becomes the domain of rehabilitation and
needs to be done under strict medical supervision.
In general, people aged over 65 years are warned
against undertaking physical activity of a large effort.
Any effort being a relative sporting feat requires prior
preparation of these individuals. In the seventh decade
of life, the adaptability of cardiovascular system declines quite significantly, and many people suffer from
early atherosclerotic processes of arteries, calcium
deposits, unwanted cholesterol, and loss of the elasticity of blood vessels. The heart muscle is no longer as
well oxygenated and nourished, efficiency decreases,
and far-reaching degeneration appears. With age,
numerous destructive processes occur in the respiratory system, which is reflected in declining vital lung
capacity, deteriorating gas diffusion, limited mobility of
chest, and lower elasticity of lung tissue. In the motor
system, muscle atrophy progresses; muscle strength,
the number of myofibrils and the network of capillaries
decrease, and the amount of calcium and potassium,
directly relevant to the mechanism of muscle contraction, drops. The changes in the osteoarticular system
are even more drastic, as with age, osteoblast activ-
ity declines, a spongy substance grows, bone demineralization occurs, capsular-ligamentous apparatus
weakens significantly, bone mineral density decreases,
and simultaneously, the risk of fractures increases.
Systematically, changes in the nervous system follow.
The atrophy of many cells and nerve fibers occur, and
there are neurovegetative disorders: impaired cerebral
hemodynamics, progressive reduction in the efficiency
of memory, and mental function [9, 10].
Overall, PA programs targeted for older people
should provide for relatively systematic collaboration
with a physician, adjust requirements to individual
needs, prevent excessive fatigue, propose forms of exercise able to be sustained at moderate effort for an extended period of time, and avoid static exercises, sudden acceleration, and body position changes that may
cause damage, injuries, and the overload of a body. It
is particularly important to prevent the development of
senility and depression, counteract the state of anxiety
and low spirits, and arouse belief in a person. Clearly,
an instructor of a PA program is expected to meet
a wide range of requirements. Such a person must be
able to create an atmosphere of respect, commitment
and mutual esteem, as well as develop kind and friendly
relationships among a group of people in training.
3. Programs and education for staff who
promote physical activity for the elderly
The importance of PA must be appreciated mainly for the
purposes of maintaining functional independence and
what that entails: the proper quality of life of older people.
The motto, To add life to years that have been added to
life, was used by the United Nations in the Madrid Plan of
Action on Ageing adopted at the Second World Assembly
on Ageing (8–12 April 2002, Madrid) [11].
Geriatric care in Poland has been neglected and
its importance underestimated for many years. Rates
for Polish geriatric care are far lower than those found
in other European Union countries [12]. In Austria and
Sweden, who lead in this area, there are 23 times more
geriatricians per 10,000 people over the age of 65
than in Poland. Geriatrics is not a mandatory subject
for medical studies in Poland; geriatric rehabilitation
is not paid for by the National Health Fund (Narodowy
Fundusz Zdrowia, NFZ). Concurrent treatment, which
is particularly important for holistic geriatric medicine,
is not available. Furthermore, there is also no indication
that in the coming years, one can expect a radical and
immediate improvement in health care for the elderly.
– 121 –
Wiesław Osiński, Robert Szeklicki
In Poland, the importance of PA in promoting
a healthy lifestyle is generally underestimated. The
elderly have few opportunities for organized PA.
According to research conducted by Kozdroń in 2006
[13], only 2 out of 34 sports and recreation centers in
Warsaw had classes for the elderly; none of the sports
clubs had such classes. Classes for the elderly were
organized by 3 out of the 51 groups that belonged
to the Society for the Promotion of Physical Culture
(Towarzystwo Krzewienia Kultury Fizycznej, TKKF).
Only 4 private fitness clubs offered some form of PA
for women over the age of 50. The author stated in the
conclusion of her work that approximately 1% of the
elderly in Warsaw participated in organized PA quite
systematically. It does not seem likely that the situation
found in other cities could be better or that the situation has significantly improved since then. PA for the
elderly is too often only associated with rehabilitation
in hospitals or sanatoriums, and thus treated as part of
clinical medicine.
The fourth consolidated draft of “EU Physical
Activity Guidelines,” which was approved by the EU
Working Group “Sport & Health” on 25 September 2008
[14], failed to be implemented in Poland. The selected
guidelines and obligations arising from our membership
in the EU, and those directly related to the older persons, are presented below.
EXAMPLES OF THE EUROPEAN UNION PHYSICAL
ACTIVITY GUIDELINES
Guideline 35 – “In view of increasing longevity in
European societies, EU Member States should increase
research into the link between physical activity of senior
citizens and their psychological and physiological health
as well as into the identification of means to enhance
awareness of the importance of being physically active.”
Guideline 36 – “Public authorities should provide facilities which make physical activity more accessible and
attractive to elderly people, being aware that spending
money on such facilities will save money on medical
treatment.”
Guideline 37 – “Special attention should be paid by personnel in charge of caring for elderly people at home and
in institutions to ensure that suitable amounts of exercise,
compatible with the health conditions, are maintained.”
(According to EU Physical Activity Guidelines.
Recommended Policy Actions in Support of
Health-Enhancing Physical Activity. Brussels,
10 October 2008)
Meanwhile, Poland passed the binding “Act on
Sport” (25 June 2010), which included the following:
POLAND – “ACT ON SPORT” (2010)
(1) “Physical culture, including sport, is not the domain
of the state, but above all else, of civil liberty.”
(2) “Physical recreation generally remains outside
the sphere of legal regulation, as the activity is of
a highly personal nature.”
(3) “The subject of this draft act should be just sport as
being the most important element of physical culture.”
[15].
Consequently, the “Act of Sport” skipped those
recommendations – defined quite precisely in the EU
guidelines – for the promotion of PA (with the exception of sporting feat). In this way, the “Act of Sport” relieved the parliament and government of Poland of any
responsibility for providing PA for the elderly, moving it
to the realm of “civil liberties” (See: Point 1 above).
Given this situation, it is not surprising that despite
enormous need, there is no systematic process in
Poland for teaching staff that specialize in PA for the
elderly. Contrary to Poland, one can find quite a number of specialist courses for staff that are aimed at the
needs of the elderly for PA (“Sport educators in physical activity for the elderly,” “Master physical activity
for the elderly”) at various levels of studies at foreign
universities. The occasional courses for instructors of
recreation in the field of “kinesigerontoprophylaxis” are
not a sufficient solution.
Recognizing many gaps and weaknesses in the implementation of PA programs aimed at the specific needs
of the elderly, the University School of Physical Education
in Poznań organized 3 major international conferences in
Rydzyna, near Leszno, in 2003, 2006 and 2009, where
the problem of PA for the elderly was the main theme
(or one of the main themes) of the conference. A significant effect of those meetings was the resolution “Aging
and Physical Activity: Application to Fitness, Sport and
Health,” which was prepared by an international team of
experts (Rydzyna, 15–17 September 2006). The conclusion of this resolution reads [16]:
1. The aging of society mandates a continuing commitment to scientific research related to aging
and older persons. There is a particular need for
increased research on topics related to the role of
physical activity in the promotion of health and wellbeing in old age.
– 122 –
Development of gerokinesiology: one of the greatest challenges faced by sport sciences
2. There is a need for more research relating to the
specific type, intensity and volume of physical activity necessary to ensure health, functional independence, and quality of life in old age.
3. Government officials and local authorities should
be educated about the central role that physical activity plays in maintaining health and independence
for older adults.
4. Local communities have a responsibility to assist
older persons to be physically active. In addition
to providing access to physical activity programs,
it is also important to ensure that older people have
many opportunities to build physical activity into
their everyday lives.
5. Universities and colleges should place a greater emphasis on educating students about the importance
of physical activity for older persons. Particular
attention should be paid to preparing future generations of researchers and health professionals to
help meet the needs of older persons.
6. Physical educators, health professionals, and others with expertise in healthy aging will need to work
together to develop a cohesive national strategy to
promote active aging.
The University School of Physical Education in
Poznań regularly includes research results in the
class content of 3 subjects offered to those majoring
in physical education and physiotherapy: the theory
of physical education, anthropomotorics, and physical
activity of the elderly. The last subject, having been
taught for several years in the context of 2-year postgraduate studies in physical education with a specialization in the sports of people with disabilities, is very
popular among students. Beginning in academic year
2009/2010, this subject has been also present – under
a slightly different name (i.e., adaptive physical activity for the elderly) – in a 2-year postgraduate studies
program in physiotherapy. However, this one subject is
not enough. The course content taught was scattered
throughout different subjects, touched on the problem
to a limited extent, and did not favor the education of
professionals preparing to lead PA programs for the elderly. To follow the example of other countries, it would
be necessary to either create a separate specialty or
even a new academic major. The most relevant here
would be postgraduate studies. Graduates of 3-year
bachelor’s program involving both physical education
and physiotherapy are adequately prepared and could
obtain such a specialization upon further master’s de-
gree studies. This would be a significant extension of
an educational product, thus raising the attractiveness
of education in today’s highly competitive market for
higher education, and giving additional opportunities for
alumni to find work in their profession after graduating.
Also, we believe that in Poland the demographic and
social situations will force – and the economic situation will enable – a huge market to develop in the area
of various forms of PA aimed at the specific needs of
elderly people.
4. Research for the benefit
of physical activity of older people
For years, many countries have been conducting research aimed at preventing premature functional failure,
decreasing morbidity rates, and increasing the length and
quality of human life. There are specialist scientific journals on the topic (Journal of Aging and Physical Activity;
European Review of Aging and Physical Activity), as well
as scientific monographs, handbooks, and conferences.
The beneficial role of PA in the prevention and therapy
of heart disease, obesity, hypertension, diabetes, osteoporosis, and depression has been repeatedly proven.
However, many questions remain unanswered. There
is a widespread belief that limited PA is an independent
risk factor for premature mortality. Bauman [17] pointed
out that if society were physically active, the number of
premature deaths could be reduced by 25–33%.
Since the late 1990s, the Department of Theory
of Physical Education and Anthropomotorics at the
University School of Physical Education in Poznań has
systematically studied the issue of PA of older people
in their research. In recent years, 3 extensive research
projects have been completed. The issues of the state
and the circumstances of falls, postural stability, habitual PA, and bone mineral density were analyzed:
(1) “Falls of older men and the parameters of the
static balance of the body, somatic traits, markers
of bone turnover, and levels of physical activity”
[Polish: “Upadki u starszych mężczyzn a parametry
równowagi statycznej ciała, cechy somatyczne,
markery obrotu kostnego oraz poziom aktywności
fizycznej”], KBN grant No. 6 P05D 020 20,
(2) “The influence of physical training aimed at reducing risk factors of falls of men aged over 60 years”
[Polish: “Wpływ ukierunkowanego treningu fizycznego na redukcję czynników ryzyka upadków
u mężczyzn w wieku powyżej 60 lat”], MNiI grant
No. 2 P05 038 26, realized in 2005–2006,
– 123 –
Wiesław Osiński, Robert Szeklicki
(3) “The effects of moderate physical efforts on postural stability: an analysis in the context of the risk of
falls for older men” [Polish: “Wpływ umiarkowanych
wysiłków fizycznych na stabilność posturalną:
analiza w kontekście ryzyka upadków u starszych
mężczyzn”], MNiSW grant No. N N404 149534, realized in 2008–2010.
Research issues related to older people have also
been examined within the statutory activities of the
Faculty of Physical Education, Sport and Rehabilitation
at the University School of Physical Education in Poznań
(“Optimal morphological values and social factors in
the light of the criteria for physical fitness in contemporary Polish population,” Polish: “Optymalne wartości
morfologiczne i czynniki społeczne w świetle kryterium
sprawności fizycznej we współczesnej polskiej populacji,” a project carried out at the Department of Theory
and Methodology of Physical Education).
In addition to the articles in scientific journals, 3
monographs have been published:
– Impact of aging on physical activity, fitness and
health. Selected results of scientific research [18],
– Habitual physical activity of men over 60 years: the
morphological and metabolic consequences and
social conditions [Polish: Habitualna aktywność
fizyczna mężczyzn po 60. roku życia: konsekwencje
morfologiczne i metaboliczne oraz uwarunkowania
społeczne] [19],
– The influence of Tai-Chi training on postural sta­
bility and its determinants in men aged over 60
years [Polish: Wpływ treningu Tai-Chi na stabilność
posturalną i jej uwarunkowania u mężczyzn po 60.
roku życia] [20].
Six doctoral programs with dissertations related to
older persons have been completed:
– Rafał Stemplewski, 2004: The tendency for falls
and markers of bone turnover, body composition
and physical activity of men over 65 years [Polish:
Skłonność do upadków a markery obrotu kostnego,
skład ciała i aktywność fizyczna u mężczyzn po 65.
roku życia],
– Magdalena Król-Zielińska, 2006: The fitness, physi­
cal activity, and sense of quality of life for women
and men over 60 years old [Polish: Sprawność
i aktywność fizyczna oraz poczucie jakości życia
kobiet i mężczyzn powyżej 60. roku życia],
– Monika Stefaniak, 2008: The impact of a special­
ized program of physical exercise on changes in
bone mineral density, level of bone turnover mark­
ers, and body composition of men over 60 years
old [Polish: Wpływ specjalistycznego programu
ćwiczeń fizycznych na zmiany gęstości mineralnej
kości i poziom markerów obrotu kostnego oraz
skład ciała u mężczyzn po 60. roku życia],
– Artur Salamon, 2008: The indices of body balance
and somatic characteristics, and the risk of falls of
men over 60 years old [Polish: Wskaźniki równow­
agi ciała i charakterystyki somatyczne a ryzyko up­
adków u mężczyzn po 60. roku życia],
– Tomasz Głowacki, 2008: The manifestation of mo­
tor coordination affected by short-term exercise in
women aged 65–70 years [Polish: Przejawy koor­
dynacji motorycznej pod wpływem krótkotrwałego
wysiłku fizycznego u kobiet w wieku 65–70 lat],
– Arleta Loga, 2009: Postural stability and diverse
physical activity in women over 65 years old [Polish:
Stabilność posturalna a zróżnicowany wysiłek fizy­
czny u kobiet powyżej 65. roku życia].
5. Gerokinesiology – a new area of research
In recent years, knowledge about the importance of PA
for the elderly’s physical, mental and social health has
greatly expanded. Shephard [9] showed that given the
wide range of medical conditions and functional limitations of the elderly, an instructor who has classes with
older people (65 + years) needs to possess even more
expertise, skills, and experience than in the case of
classes with younger people. Thus, at many universities there are separate majors and specializations of
studies focused on PA of the elderly. C. J. Jones and
D. J. Rose [1] use the term “gerokinesiology” for this
growing area of research. The term has its origin in
Greek gèrōn, gerontos – old man, kinein – to move.
Gero – is also a part of the name of scientific discipline,
gerontology, which created a broad concept of biological, medical, economic, social, psychological, fitness,
and health aspects of aging and old age. For example,
gerodontia is dentistry of people at old age; gerokomia
is the care and treatment for elderly people in institutions for them. On the other hand, according to the
findings of the American Academy of Kinesiology and
Physical Education, kinesiology studies motion and PA
in a multilateral and multidisciplinary manner [21]. In this
sense, kinesiology studies in particular problems associated with the analysis of motion and determinants of
PA that are aimed at improving health, fitness, everyday activities, and activities relating to participation in
– 124 –
Development of gerokinesiology: one of the greatest challenges faced by sport sciences
sports, dance, work, and play. C. J. Jones and D. J.
Rose [1] defined gerokinesiology as a field of research
conducted over a broad range of disciplines in the area
of kinesiology. It is mainly focused on identifying how
PA affects different aspects of health and well-being in
older populations and in the general aging process.
This significantly expanded the scope of kinesiology, which had traditionally been distinguished as an
academic discipline. The numerous subdisciplines of
kinesiology, such as biomechanics, exercise physiology, sport psychology, sport pedagogy, motor control
and learning, may be involved in the creation of original research programs oriented to the needs of older
people. Such areas are considered to be particularly
important: physical fitness, promotion of health, fitness training, cardiac rehabilitation, daily life activities, sports, and dance. Just as in the case of gerontology, which is a general term for multidisciplinary
research focused on the issues of aging and old age,
and geriatrics, which is defined as the field of medicine addressing the clinical problems of old age, we
refer to gerokinesiology as the study of motion and
PA in the elderly. Sometimes we refer to kinesigerontoprophylaxis to describe the practical programs that
are implemented.
In 2004, the International Curriculum Guidelines for
Preparing Physical Activity Instructors of Older Adults
was developed [22]. It was assumed that complete
training and preparation for the implementation of programs should include the following issues:
1. Overview of aging and physical activity.
2. Psychological, sociocultural, and physiological aspects of physical activity and older adults.
3. Screening, assessment, and goal setting.
4. Program design and management.
5. Program design for older adults with stable medical
conditions.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Teaching skills.
Leadership, communication, and marketing skills.
Client safety and first aid.
Ethics and professional conduct.
An important feature of the preparation and conduct
for implementing PA programs among older people
should be the perception of an elderly person in the
entirety of his or her health problems, family and living
conditions, psychological problems, and many other
conditions and needs. In general gerontological literature and medicine concerning old age, such an attitude
is defined as the “geriatric approach.”
6. Conclusion
Data indicate that in regard to the concern for the older
generation, Poland lags behind many European countries. In view of its gradually aging society, Poland’s
parliamentary, governmental, and local levels should
have a far more active policy for supporting PA in the
older generation. The observed general tendency to
lead sedentary lifestyles requires the creation of environments that encourage safe forms of PA to be undertaken at places near where the elderly live. Local
governments, health care systems, insurance companies, mass media, and local communities should be
more engaged in the promotion and support (including
financial support) of PA among older people. It is also
necessary to support research, further development of
staff training, organization of meetings and conferences, and creation of a consistent system of monitoring
and consultation through which the health benefits of
physical activity will be systematically highlighted and
people will be shown how to undertake and maintain
PA during old age.
LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Jones CJ, Rose DJ: The field of gerokinesiology; in: Jones
CJ, Rose DJ (eds): Activity Instruction of Older Adults.
Champaign, Human Kinetics, 2005: 3–10.
[2] Giannakouris K: Ageing characterises the demographic
perspectives of the European societes. Eurostat. Statistics
in focus, 2008; 72: 1–11.
[3] Okólski M: Demografia. Podstawowe pojęcia, procesy
i teorie w encyklopedycznym zarysie. Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar, 2005.
[4] Katz S, Branch LG, Bransos MH, Popsidero JA, Beck JC,
Greer DS: Active life expectancy. N Engl J Med, 1983;
309: 1218–1224.
[5] World Health Organization: The World Health Organization issues guidelines for promoting physical activity
among older persons. JAPA, 1997; 5(1): 1–8.
[6] MacAuley D: Potencjalne korzyści płynące z aktywności
fizycznej podejmowanej przez ludzi starszych. Med
Sportiva, 2001; 5(4): 229–236.
– 125 –
Wiesław Osiński, Robert Szeklicki
[7] DeBusk RF, Stenestran D, Sheehan M, Haskell WL:
Training effects of long versus short bouts of exercise in
healthy subjects. Am J Cardiol, 1990; 65: 1010–1013.
[8] Bouchard C, Blair SN, Haskell WL (eds.): Physical Activity
and Health. Champaign, Human Kinetics, 2007.
[9] Shephard RJ: Aging, Physical Activity and Health. Champaign, Human Kinetics, 1997.
[10] Spiriduso WW, Francis KL, MacRea PG: Physical Dimension of Aging. Champaign, Human Kinetics, 2005.
[11] The United Nations: the Madrid Plan of Action on Ageing.
2002, http://www.unic.un.org.pl/rozwoj_spoleczny/age1.
pdf 8.09.2009.
[12] Derejczyk J, Bień B, Kokoszka-Paszkot J, Szczygieł J: Gerontologia i geriatria w Polsce na tle Europy – czy należy
inwestować w ich rozwój w naszym kraju? Gerontologia
Polska, 2008; 16(3): 149–159.
[13] Kozdroń E: Zorganizowana rekreacja ruchowa kobiet
w starszym wieku w środowisku miejskim. Propozycja
programu i analiza efektów prozdrowotnych. Studies and
Monographs, Warszawa, AWF, 2006; 112.
[14] EU Physical Activity Guidelines. Recommended Policy
Actions in Support of Health-Enhancing Physical Activity.
Brussels, http://msport.gov.pl, 10 October 2008.
[15] Act on Sport on 25 June 2010. Dz.U. 2010 no. 127 pos.
857. Reasons for Act on Sport. Warsaw, 2010, http://bip.
msit.gov.pl.
[16] Aging and Physical Activity: Application to Fitness,
Sport and Health, International Conference, Rydzyna,
15–17 September 2006. Antropomotoryka, 2006; 16(35):
116–118.
[17] Bauman A: Use of population attributable risk (PAR): in
understanding the health benefits of physical activity. Br
J Sports Med, 1998; 32(4): 279–280.
[18] Osiński W (ed.): Impact of aging on physical activity, fitness and health. Selected results of scientific research.
Book Series: Monograph, Poznań, AWF, 2006; 373.
[19] Szeklicki R: Habitualna aktywność fizyczna mężczyzn
po 60. roku życia: konsekwencje morfologiczne i metaboliczne oraz uwarunkowania społeczne. Book Series:
Monograph, Poznań, AWF, 2007; 381.
[20] Maciaszek J: Wpływ treningu Tai-Chi na stabilność posturalną i jej uwarunkowania u mężczyzn po 60. roku życia.
Book Series: Monograph, Poznań, AWF, 2009; 390.
[21] Hoffman SJ, Harris JC: Introduction to Kinesiology and
Physical Activity; in: Hoffman SJ (ed.) Introduction to
Kinesiology. Champaign, Human Kinetics, 2005: 1–34.
[22] Ecclestone NA, Jones CJ: International Curriculum
Guidelines for Preparing Physical Activity Instructors of
Older Adults, in Collaboration with the Aging and Life
Course, World Health Organization. JAPA, 2004; 12:
467–479.
– 126 –
NR 58
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
HUMAN MOVEMENT SCIENCE
– PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
(ON EXAMPLE OF MONOGRAPH “HUMAN
MOVEMENT SCIENCE – ANTHROPOKINESIOLOGY”)
PRZESZŁOŚĆ, TERAŹNIEJSZOŚĆ
I PRZYSZŁOŚĆ NAUKI O RUCHU CZŁOWIEKA
(NA PRZYKŁADZIE MONOGRAFII „HUMAN MOVEMENT
SCIENCE – ANTHROPOKINESIOLOGY”)
Włodzimierz Starosta*
* Prof. Dr. Habil., International Association of Sport Kinetics, High School of Physical Education and Tourism in Bialystok,
Poland
Key words: human movement science, monograph
Słowa kluczowe: nauka o ruchu człowieka, monografia
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE In spite of the fact that numerous studies on the crucial aspects of human movements have been published until now, just a few of them may be related to the science of anthropokinesiology as a whole. From
among them one monograph seems to fill this gap, referring to the above important issues globally, being
aimed to signal the recent changes in human physical activity and their consequences for health, length
and the quality of human life. Although in the monograph the achievements of one author prevail, he is
supported by eminent co-authors, who present little known facts about the science of movement from the
perspective of different countries. Important is also the statistical recording of that evolution in the world,
which implies European “backwardness” or “conservatism” with reference to cautious application of innovative solutions.
Opublikowano już wprawdzie wiele prac poświęconych żywotnym aspektom ludzkiej motoryczności,
a mimo to nieliczne z nich ujmują antropokiniezjologię jako całość. Tę lukę zdaje się wypełniać jedna z omawianych poniżej monografii, w której zagadnienia te zostały wszechstronnie zaprezentowane, z uwzględnieniem
zmian, które zachodzą ostatnio w sferze ludzkiej aktywności fizycznej oraz ich konsekwencji dla zdrowia, długości
i jakości życia. Wspiera się ona wprawdzie na efektach dociekań badawczych jednego autora, to jednak udział
międzynarodowego grona znakomitych współpracowników gwarantuje prezentację mało znanych faktów z dziejów nauki o ludzkim ruchu w różnych krajach. Istotnego znaczenia nabiera również statystyczne ujęcie przebiegu
ewolucji tej nauki w świecie, które wykazuje „tradycjonalizm” czy też „konserwatyzm” europejski we wdrażaniu
innowacyjnych rozwiązań.
– 127 –
Włodzimierz Starosta
“Movement can replace all medicines
but no medicine is able to replace movement.”
[Wojciech Oczko, XVI century]
Introduction
Movement is a universal phenomenon accompanying man and all living organisms from the beginning
to the end of their lives. Hence, the very succinct but
the emphatic words of the great ancient philosopher
Aristotle: Movement is life becomes very current. Some
authors [1, 2] added a vital part to this genial premise:
Movement is life and experiencing. Experiencing accompanies every movement and is always subject to
evaluation of the performer of the movement and of his
teacher. The process of learning and of improving techniques of movement is always connected with emotions
of various intensity. Emotions accompany the process
of remembering the movement.
Human movement science
The universality and importance of the movement requires a comprehensive analysis, and thus the participation of representatives of almost all scientific
disciplines. Compliance with this condition is easy and
requires time, so the task can be carried out in the future. This monograph is far from that ideal. It addresses
an issue important to everyone: the science of human
movement – anthropokinesiology, and therefore addresses very broad and diverse human activities. Its
content is just trying to signal the recently observed
changes in human physical activity and its consequences for health, length and the quality of human life.
Many works on this subject have been published, but
just a few of them are related to the science of human
movement. According to R. Renson [3] between 1894
and 2000 over 50 monographs and textbooks on different subjects of kinesiology from the perspective of various disciplines were published (Table 1). Was another
monograph on this subject needed then? This question
requires a detailed response.
How does it differ from the previous publications?
The differences are many, so I will note only the most
important ones. First, the authors of the published
works were mostly representatives of the Englishspeaking countries, who not only did not see the enormous contribution of the great philosophers of antiquity, including Aristotle, Plato, Socrates to the science
of human movement, but also did not observe the undisputed achievements of such masters as Leonardo
da Vinci, I. Sechenov, I. Pavlov, N. Bernstein (Figure
1). From the numerous publications issued in the
years 1894–2000 the monograph of S. Hoffman and J.
Harris, modestly called Introduction to kinesiology, is to
be distinguished not only because of its beautiful look
and volume (Figure 2). However, there is lack of what
can be found in our monograph – attempts to include
the achievements of scholars from the West, as well
as those from the East, presenting not only the profiles
of individual scholars, but also their specific contribution to the science of human movement. The need to
take into account the two “lungs” of Europe was vividly
mentioned by the Pope – John Paul II not so long ago.
Furthermore, in our monograph there is an attempt to
grasp the genesis of formation of the long-known and
now reviving scientific discipline. Discipline which is
uniquely interdisciplinary, which covers a huge area
where there is room for representatives of almost all
the sciences.
Table 1. Overview on kinesiology monographs published in North America between 1894 and 2000 [Renson, 2002]
Posse N.
1894
„The special kinesiology of education gymnastics”
Skarstom W.
1909
„ Gymnastic kinesiology: a manual of mechanism of gymnasts movement”
Bowen W.P.
1917
„Applied anatomy and kinesiology: the mechanisc of muscular movement”
Hawley G.
1937
„The kinesiology of corrective exercise”
Scott M.G.
1942
„Analysis of human motion: a textbook in kinesiology”
Scott M.G.
1947
„Kinesiology handbook: a study guide and laboratory manual”
Kranz L.G.
Reedited by Thompson C.W.
1948
–
„Kinesiology, laboratory manual”
„Manual of structural kinesiology”
Glassow R.B.
1950
„A laboratory manual for funktional kinesiology”
Morehouse L.E. & Cooper J.M.
1950
„Kinesiology”
– 128 –
Human movement science – past, present and future
Wells K.F.
1950
„Kinesiology: the mechanical and anatomic fundamentals of human motion illustrated”
Lipovitz F.J.
1952
„Basic kinesiology”
Steindler A.
1955
„Kinesiology of human body under normal and pathological conditions”
Rasch P.J. & Burke R.K.
1959
„Kinesiology and applied anatomy”
Massey B.H.
1959
„The kinesiology of weight lifting”
Brunnstrom S.
1962
„Clinical kinesiology”
Cooper J.M. & Glassow R.B.
1963
„Kinesiology”
Morehouse L.E.
1965
„Subject matter of kinesiology”
Morehouse L.E.
1965
„Concept of kinesiology and physical education as academic disciplines”
Harris R. W.
1967
„Kinesiology: workbook and laboratory manual”
Broer M.R.
1968
„An introduction to kinesiology”
Barham J.N. & Thomas W.L.
1969
„Anatomical kinesiology”
Jensen C.R. & Schultz G.W.
1970
„Applied kinesiology: the scientific study of human performance”
Logan G.A.
1970
„Kinesiology”
Kelley D.L.
1971
„Kinesiology: fundamentals of motion description”
Dasmedt J.E.
1973
„New concept of the motor unit, neuromuscular disorders, electromyographic kinesiology”
Barham J.N. & Wooten E.P.
1973
„Structural kinesiology”
Esch D. & Lepley M.
1974
„Musculosceletar function: an anatomy and kinesiology manual”
Groves R. & Camaione D.N.
1975
„Concepts in kinesiology”
Spence D.W.
1975
„Essentials of kinesiology: a laboratory manual”
Schutz N.W.
1976
„Kinesiology: the articulation of movement”
Hinson M.M.
1977
„Kinesiology”
Logan G.A. & McKinney W.C.
1977
„Anatomic kinesiology”
Barham J.N.
1978
„Mechanical kinesiology”
Barham J.N.
1978
„Teachers guide to accompany mechanical kinesiology”
Greenlee G. e.a.
1981
„Kinesiology”
Kneer M.E.
1981
„Kinesiology”
Piscopo J. & Baley J.E.
1981
„Kinesiology: the science of movement”
Jensen C.R. e.a.
1983
„Applied kinesiology and biomechanics”
Soderberg G.L.
1986
„Kinesiology application to pathological motion”
Enoka R.M.
1988
„Neuromechanical basis of kinesiology”
Fitt S.S.
1988
„Dance kinesiology”
Wilkerson J.D. e.a.
1991
„Teaching kinesiology and biomechanics”
Yessis M.
1992
„Kinesiology of exercise: a safe and effective way to improve bodybuilding and athletic
performance”
Charles J.M.
1994
„Contemporary kinesiology: an introduction to the study of human movement”
Vincent W.J.
1994
„Statistics on kinesiology”
Zeigler E.F.
1994
„Psychical education and kinesiology in North America: professional & scholary foundations
Gench B.E. e.a.
1995
„Anatomical kinesiology”
Wade M.G. & Baker J.A.W.
1995
„Introduction to kinesiology: the science and practice of physical activity”
Tyldesley D.P. & Roberts S.L.
1996
„Muscles, nerves and movement: kinesiology in daily living”
Greene D.P. & Roberts S.L.
1999
„Kinesiology: movement in the context of activity”
Konin J.G.
1999
„Practical kinesiology for the physical therapist assistant”
Hoffman S.J. & Harris J.
2000
„Introduction to kinesiology: studying physical activity”
Steindler A.
1955
„Kinesiology of human body under normal and pathological conditions”
Rasch P.J. & Burke R.K.
1959
„Kinesiology and applied anatomy”
Massey B.H.
1959
„The kinesiology of weight lifting”
Brunnstrom S.
1962
„Clinical kinesiology”
Cooper J.M. & Glassow R.B.
1963
„Kinesiology”
Morehouse L.E.
1965
„Subject matter of kinesiology”
– 129 –
Włodzimierz Starosta
Morehouse L.E.
1965
„Concept of kinesiology and physical education as academic disciplines”
Harris R. W.
1967
„Kinesiology: workbook and laboratory manual”
Broer M.R.
1968
„An introduction to kinesiology”
Barham J.N. & Thomas W.L.
1969
„Anatomical kinesiology”
Jensen C.R. & Schultz G.W.
1970
„Applied kinesiology: the scientific study of human performance”
Logan G.A.
1970
„Kinesiology”
Kelley D.L.
1971
„Kinesiology: fundamentals of motion description”
Dasmedt J.E.
1973
„New concept of the motor unit, neuromuscular disorders, electromyographic kinesiology”
Barham J.N. & Wooten E.P.
1973
„Structural kinesiology”
Esch D. & Lepley M.
1974
„Musculosceletar function: an anatomy and kinesiology manual”
Groves R. & Camaione D.N.
1975
„Concepts in kinesiology”
Spence D.W.
1975
„Essentials of kinesiology: a laboratory manual”
Schutz N.W.
1976
„Kinesiology: the articulation of movement”
Hinson M.M.
1977
„Kinesiology”
Logan G.A. & McKinney W.C.
1977
„Anatomic kinesiology”
Barham J.N.
1978
„Mechanical kinesiology”
Barham J.N.
1978
„Teachers guide to accompany mechanical kinesiology”
Greenlee G. e.a.
1981
„Kinesiology”
Kneer M.E.
1981
„Kinesiology”
Piscopo J. & Baley J.E.
1981
„Kinesiology: the science of movement”
Jensen C.R. e.a.
1983
„Applied kinesiology and biomechanics”
Soderberg G.L.
1986
„Kinesiology application to pathological motion”
Enoka R.M.
1988
„Neuromechanical basis of kinesiology”
Fitt S.S.
1988
„Dance kinesiology”
Wilkerson J.D. e.a.
1991
„Teaching kinesiology and biomechanics”
Yessis M.
1992
„Kinesiology of exercise: a safe and effective way to improve bodybuilding and athletic
performance”
Charles J.M.
1994
„Contemporary kinesiology: an introduction to the study of human movement”
Vincent W.J.
1994
„Statistics on kinesiology”
Zeigler E.F.
1994
„Psychical education and kinesiology in North America: professional & scholary foundations
Gench B.E. e.a.
1995
„Anatomical kinesiology”
Wade M.G. & Baker J.A.W.
1995
„Introduction to kinesiology: the science and practice of physical activity”
Tyldesley D.P. & Roberts S.L.
1996
„Muscles, nerves and movement: kinesiology in daily living”
Greene D.P. & Roberts S.L.
1999
„Kinesiology: movement in the context of activity”
Konin J.G.
1999
„Practical kinesiology for the physical therapist assistant”
Hoffman S.J. & Harris J.
2000
„Introduction to kinesiology: studying physical activity”
Secondly, a significant part of the monograph,
maybe not fully successfully, but attempted to present the cross-disciplinary approach to issues of importance of physical activity of every human being.
These include: the relationship between rhythm and
breathing movements, the ability of muscles relaxation during this exercise, the lateral differentiation of
human movements in various types of activities, symmetrization of movement functions and adaptation
of the left-handed to the right handed environment
(Figure 3). Some of these problems are analyzed
basing on the diverse and complex movements of the
sport. Thirdly, it addresses the very important issue
of kinesthetic sensations and their specific variations
typical of various activities. The problems were not
reflected in the specialized literature, even in the theory of movements teaching or in theories of teaching
physical education and sport. Hence, this monograph
fills existing shortages in the various manifestations of
the human movement.
Knowledge accumulated by scholars around the
world is becoming more extensive, yet more detailed. It
includes results of research conducted in the disciplines
already known as well as in the new ones. The disci-
– 130 –
Human movement science – past, present and future
Figure 1. Development of human movement science – a calendar of selected most important facts
– 131 –
Włodzimierz Starosta
Figure 1. Development of human movement science (cont.)
plines develop at different rates, however these monothematic, one subject ones like physics or astronomy,
develop must faster. The slower pace of development
is characterized by interdisciplinary science. It is extremely important, but also more complicated because
it requires broader knowledge. In the opinion of many
scholars, it is at the crossroads of various disciplines
that new and valuable facts are established. Hence,
more and more interdisciplinary research is undertaken
on various issues. Among them there is the science of
human movement, which is being rediscovered presently.
Figure 2. A cover of a book entitled Introduction to Kinesiology:
Studying Physical Activity [Hoffmann, Harris, 2000]
Figure 3. A cover of a book entitled Human Movement Science
– Anthropokinesiology [Starosta, 2010]
– 132 –
Human movement science – past, present and future
Science with many names
This science variously called – 29 of its variants were
established [5, 8] – has accompanied human life from
its very inception (Figure 4). A name for it was long
Figure 4. Direction of human movement science development
including variations in terminology [Starosta, 2001]
Figure 5. Original front page of the book written by Dally and entitled Cinesiologie ou science du movement published by Librairie
Centrale des Scientes, Paris 1857, from the author’s personal
library [Prot, 2010].
searched for, although a long time ago its definition appeared – science about movements [6] and kinesiology
[7] (Figure 5). Recently, out of this extensive mosaic,
a name appropriate to its core content has emerged –
the science of human movement [5, 8] or anthropokinesiology [9, 10]. Its foundations, across centuries, were
created by the most famous scholars of various disciplines and specialties. This demonstrates the validity,
as well as the complexity of the science. The science
is both universal and interdisciplinary. Universal, because it concerns every human being from his birth to
old age, regardless of gender, profession, experience,
movement luggage etc. The interdisciplinary science,
because of the great diversity of human movements,
aimed at both activities of daily living and professional
life, must be examined taking into account its various
backgrounds: starting from the genetic and environmental, through biomechanical, biological, medical,
physiological, psychological, environmental, and ending with the pedagogical, philosophical, moral and aesthetic (Figure 6). They are not all but the dozen of those
listed show how complex human movements are. If we
complement it by a huge variety of human movements
and their multilateral orientation: starting with the activities of daily living, through recreation, rehabilitation,
tourism, physical education, sport, and ending with the
performance of various professions, including sports,
circus arts and dance, playing musical instruments –
we shall understand how extensive the coverage may
be of this scientific discipline (Figure 7).
Figure 6. Movement science in human life and selected conditions
of its development – anthropokinesiology [Starosta, 2001]
– 133 –
Włodzimierz Starosta
Its value becomes important in view of the results of
research testifying to the great reduction of human
movement activity in the century 1864–1964 by 93%
(Figure 8) [12].
Figure 7. Different kinds of movement in human life as elements
of human kinesiology [Starosta, 2001a]
Rebirth in the best time?
Why does the scientific discipline revive so late? First,
the development of modern civilization, to a large extent, freed man from physical labor. Lack of significant
effort has led to a significant change in the lifestyle,
and with it to the increasing “lazy movement” and to the
sedentary lifestyle combined with watching television,
playing computer games and surfing the Internet.
One of the followers of the idea of Greek philosophers, Plato and Socrates, W. Oczko [11], the court
physician of Polish kings, was the author of the work
on the determinants of health, among which “positive thinking” occupied a leading position. W. Oczko
developed positive attitude towards movement in humans by presenting an extremely important and very
current statement: “Movement can replace all medicines, but no medicine is able to replace movement.”
Figure 8. Changes in human movement activity between 1864
and 1964 [Berg et al., 1964]
Man “forgot about his genetic program” and continued his eating habits as before, inappropriate to the
needs, began to put on weight. Man began to work
against his body needs by living a lifestyle conducive
to the emergence of diseases of civilization: obesity,
hypertension, blood, spinal deformity, flattened feet
and more. For example, in the USA more than 70%
of the population is overweight or morbidly obese
(Figure 9).
Figure 9. Overweight among the population of the world – overweight adult populations against total populations of particular countries
in percentages [World Health Organization, 2007]
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Human movement science – past, present and future
This negative pattern is followed by the societies
of more and more countries around the world. These
dangerous tendencies were already noticed several
years ago by the World Health Organization experts,
who indicated the bare minimum of human daily physical activity as 10 to 15 thousand steps. In 2007, more
than one and half a billion inhabitants of the globe were
overweight. Therefore, the beginning of the XXI century
was called the plague of morbid obesity. World Health
Organization forecasts for the coming 10 years are
even more disturbing, i.e. an increase in the number
of obese people up to 40%. This is the result of the attitude of the large part of population of many countries
to the reverse of the maxim by Horace, stating instead
of: “I eat in order to live” – “I life in order to eat.” In
this context, the science about movement appears as
a “lifeline of humanity.”
Secondly, everything extremely important, took
a long time to emerge. A stumbling block to the creation
of this study was its complexity, and above all, its interdisciplinarity. It was disregarded as an opportunity for
many scientific disciplines. First of all, those with a limited range such as anthropology, which, when combined
with the human structure function have become more
important. Psychology has also become more interesting because it took into account the manifestations of
the human psyche in a variety of movement activities,
and thus it has widened its scope and importance by
creating the psychology of physical education and
sport.
Anthropokinesiology
in program of universities
The combination of each discipline with another one
broadens its scope, but at the same time creates risks
for competence. The reason is that you need to know
not only the crucial aspects of psychology but also the
principle of human movement manifestations. Hence,
some caution of the representatives of many disciplines. Problem arises: who in the science of movement
will be competent? I guess the graduates of universities
of physical education should become experts on movement. However, do modern curricula of these universities and their implementers make it possible to obtain
such comprehensive powers, since the science of human movement under the name of Anthropomotorics
occupies a position which is inadequate to its importance, not only as far as the number of hours, but also
as regards the competence of those teaching them?
This problem seems to be of little importance for people engaged in teaching subjects well-established and
universally accepted. Is always what is accepted the
best and should it not be modified? Do the present curricula of physical education universities allow proper
preparation of their graduates to their future work? Is
the possibility of their graduates’ finding employment
of any concern for the authorities of each institution?
Therefore, the modification of curricula is necessary for
the good of university graduates and of the institutions
themselves, in which it is necessary to prepare competent people to teach this complex subject, and prepare
those who would be able to prevent the spreading of
the scourge of overweight and obesity in almost every
country.
Such modifications have already been conducted in
more than 145 universities in the world [13], especially
in the USA and Canada, which changed their names
and curricula (Table 2). The most conservative turned
out to be Europe, in which only three schools have
changed names, and also their curricula, focusing on
what for them is the most important – on movement.
Interestingly, the modern reading of the science of human movement started in Europe. It was here in 1857
Table 2. The frequency of changes in official terminology for the purposes of higher education study programs in the field of human
movement studies – United States vs. Europe [Ćustonja, Milanović, Sporiś, 2009]
Name groups define by frequently used terms
in their name
Sport
Physical education
Movement Science(s)
USA
EUROPE
Chi
p-level
46
54
2.62
0.15
172
29
100.32
0.0001
8
5
0.33
0.0001
Kinesiology
145
3
134.44
0.0001
Exercise
112
10
55.89
0.0001
Other
114
21
90.23
0.0001
SUMMARY
597
122
184.48
0.0001
– 135 –
Włodzimierz Starosta
that the first textbook on the science Cinesiologie,
written by N. Dally, was published. And in the mid
twentieth century the idea of a modern approach to
the curriculum at the High School of Physical Culture
in Leipzig (former East Germany) emerged. As a result of the total criticism of everything that was created
in this country, many interesting, modern and exemplary practices, such as the system implementation
of research results into practice, were removed. As
part of the reorganization momentum the idea used in
this university – an interdisciplinary approach to many
important scientific problems which were forwarded to
the students – was also abandoned. The staff of the
university could be called as the leaders of modern
solutions in the world of physical education, as well
as in anthropokinesiology. Here are some examples
of the implementation of this subject in this and other
universities in Europe.
Many years back the curricula of physical education at universities were discussed. Since there, during
teaching each of the subjects partial knowledge was
transferred to students, and then they were required
to make generalizations. So that is what the teaching staff was unable or simply unwilling to do. Maybe
that is why, at the High School of Physical Culture
in Leipzig, an attempt to merge scientific knowledge
transmitted to students within various theoretical
subjects was made? For example, when discussing
the topic of the warm-up multi-subject aspects were
analyzed: movement, physiological, psychological,
biomechanical, medical, etc. This was an interdisciplinary approach which was useful for students but
difficult for teachers. However, it proved to be possible. Similar approach has been adopted since 2002
at the Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb,
in which each item is strongly related to the science
of movement: for example, the kinesiology of sport,
anthropology and kinesiological recreation or educational kinesiology [14] (Figure 10). Such attempts were
made earlier in a variety of scientific disciplines, such
as combining teaching anatomy with a function, and
thus the functional anatomy was created [15].
A large part of the monograph is a collection of
works by the main author published at different times
Figure 10. The structure and organization: Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Croatia [Bartoluci, 2005]
– 136 –
Human movement science – past, present and future
and in different languages. They were mostly, introductory papers presented at conferences, thus limited
by time and just indicating the problem, not providing
full factual justification. They illustrate the variability
of views of the author and maturation of some of his
ideas, such as the structure of movement coordination,
teaching and training of sport techniques with the help
of symmetrization of movements, and also of the importance of kinesthetic sensations.
This variability is consistent with the principle of
Heraclitus of Ephesus: “everything changes, everything
flows.” Frequent references to the opinions of scholars
of antiquity are an opportunity for reflection: how much
do we draw on the expertise of our distinguished ancestors? A significant part of the monograph attempts to
provide multidisciplinary approach to various important
human issues, and particularly to those concerning the
improvement of human movement abilities using a variety of sport disciplines.
An attempt to synthesize the very extensive literature published both in Poland and the USSR was
made. The publications related to diverse human physical activities, especially sports. Hence, perhaps more
adequate to its content would be the abridged title of
Sports Kinesiology. The assimilation of the content of
the monograph should be facilitated by the numerous
illustrations, and so it meets the recommendations of
Socrates: “Better one picture instead of 100 words.”
Also, at the end of each chapter conclusions are drawn
and recommendations are made. The purpose of this
monograph was to supplement the existing literature on
the science of human movement, which was in a significant proportion elaborated by the representatives
of the West, who did not see the achievements of authors from Central and Eastern Europe. Was this due to
the existence of the Iron Curtain? This deficiency was
also observed in a great publication by S. Hoffmann
and J. Harris, Introduction to Kinesiology [4], in which
the achievements of the scholars of this part of Europe
were represented only by N. Bernstein’s book [16]. This
“one-sidedness” also applies to other publications.
Hence, binding is the main task set 20 years back by
the International Association of Sport Kinetics (Figure
11), which states that in order to obtain a full picture of
developments in the science of human movement it is
necessary to combine the achievements of scholars of
the West and East. In this context, particularly current
seems to be the slogan made by one of the authors of
this monograph R. Renson from Belgium: “Kinesiology
scientists unite!”
1. More than 450 members from 57 countries from all over the
world
world.
2. IASK members organized 70 international scientific conferences
p
countries.
in 10 European
3. IASK have special library with 34
36 monographs in 5 languages.
4. Under IASK auspices is publish 4 international journals in English.
5 IASK 12 cyclical
5.
li l “Sport
“S
Ki i ” international
Kinetics”
i
i
l scientific
i ifi
conferences was organized in 8 European countries.
Figure 11. International Association of Sport Kinetics between
1990 and 2011
Recapitulation – summary
Although in the monograph the achievements of
one author prevail, the author [17] is supported by
co-authors from Belgium – R. Renson, Croatia – D.
Milanović et al. and the Czech Republic – P. Blahuś,
who present little known facts of the creation of the
science of movement in different countries. Important
is also the statistical recording of that evolution in the
world, which implies the “backwardness” or European
“conservatism” as regards the application of innovative
solutions. The paradox is that this “modernity” arose
in Europe, but has never been approved of. The principle that certain phenomena are better noted from
a distance has been confirmed. Any change requires
courage, and this should be always present when
the possibility to improve the quality of preparation of
specialists in the field of human kinesiology, namely:
physical education, recreation, rehabilitation, tourism
and sport, arises. The more, so that we find ourselves
facing the global plague of the XXI century – the overweight and obesity – which affects the growing number of inhabitants of our globe.
Final remarks
The multiplicity and the variety of terms proposed to the
name of the human movement science demonstrated
how intensive the interest of the teams of specialists
from other fields of knowledge was, in the developing
scientific discipline and especially in the 20th the multitude of terms proposed has shown the topical scope of
the movement science.
– 137 –
Włodzimierz Starosta
Movement science has and will always have a universal meaning, since it refers to every human being
regardless: gender, age, race, occupation etc.
The movement performance of a man is extremely rich and complex and mastering the condition and
regulations of its development requires versatile and
interdisciplinary studies.
The outstanding activity of the IASK members in the
international arena, as well as the increasing prestige of
the Association prove how necessary the organization is.
LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Hartmann Ch, Senf G: Sport verstehen – Sport erleben.
Teil 1. Sportmotorische Grundlagen. Studienmaterial
fűr den Leistungskurs Sport an Gymnasien. Freistaad
Sachsen, Staadsministerium fűr Kultus GmbH, Am Mart
16, 01561 Lampertswalde, 1997.
[2] Hartmann Ch, Minow HJ: Sport verstehen – Sport erleben,
Teil 2. Trainingsmethodische Grundlagen. Studienmaterial
fűr den Leistungskurs Sport an Gymnasien. Freistaad
Sachsen, Staadsministerium fur Kultus. GmbH, Am Mart
16, 01561, Lampertswalde, 1999.
[3] Renson R: From kinesiology to kinesiology 1854–2008:
looking backwards to look forwards; in Milanović D,
Prot F (eds.): Kinesiology Research Trends and Applications. Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology University of
Zagreb, 2008: 80.
[4] Hoffman SJ, Harris JC (eds.): Introduction to Kinesiology.
Studying Physical Activity. Champaign, Ill., Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., 2000.
[5] Starosta W: Science of human movement – meaning,
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41–48.
[6] Branting LG: Branting Lars Gabriel (handwritten biography). Stockholm, Gymnastika Centralinstituts (GCI)
enslylda arkiv: National Archives (RA) vol. 6, 1856.
[7] Dally N: Cinesiologie ou science du movement dans ses
rapports avec l’education, l’hygiene et l’therapie. Paris,
Librairie Centrals des Sciences, 1857.
[8] Starosta W: Science of human movements – meaning,
name, directions of development. Journal of Human
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[9] Starosta W: Motor Coordination Abilities (Significance,
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[10] Starosta W: Ruch w życiu człowieka i jego znaczenie dla
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health]. Roczniki Naukowe Wyższej Szkoły Wychowania
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[11] Oczko W: O różnych przypadłościach ciała ludzkiego
[About Different Indispositions of Human Body], XVI
century.
[12] Berg MA et al: Health behavior among adult population.
Spring 1993. Helsinki, National Public Health Institute,
1994.
[13] Milanović D, Custonja Z, Sporis G: Kinesiology in Europe
and United States of America – differences in number and
names of European and USA higher educational institutions; in Milanović D, Prot F (eds.): Kinesiology Research
Trends and Applications. Faculty of Kinesiology, University
of Zagreb, 2008: 24–29.
[14] Bartoluci M: University of Zagreb – Faculty of Kinesiology
(3th edition). Zagreb, 2005: 1–36.
[15] Ivanicky MF: Aнатомия человека [Human Anatomy].
Moskva, Izd. Fizkultura i Sport, 1956.
[16] Bernstein NA: Очеркu по физиологии движений и физиологии активности [An Outline of Movement Physiology
and Activity Physiology]. Moskva, Izd. Medicina, 1966.
[17] Starosta W: Human Movement Science – Anthropokinesiology. Warsaw, International Association of Sport
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of Physical Education and Tourism in Białystok, 2010.
– 138 –