Anna Kutrzeba-Pojnarowa, Polish Ethnography During 30 Years of

Anna Kutrzeba-Pojnarowa, Polish Ethnography During 30 Years of

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Etnografia Polska vol. X I X, book 2
ANNA KUTRZEBA-POJNAROWA
POLISH ETHNOGRAPHY DURING 30 YEARS OF EXISTENCE OF
THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF POLAND (CONNECTION WITH
THE TRADITION AND NEW DIRECTIONS OF RESEARCH)
I.
CRITERIA OF EVALUATION VS. TRADITIONS OF THE POLISH
SCHOOL OF ETHNOGRAPHY
Trying to evaluate the achievements of Polish ethnography thirty years after the
end of World War II, we can evaluate them from various perspectives. The
evaluations carried out from time to time until then, including articles in Etnografia
Polska, took into account primarily the conformity of the general direction of
development of our discipline with the development of other sciences during these
periods, undertaking of mutual or similar tasks relating to apparent needs of the
country, its status in particular epochs and views on the role of science. Another
viewpoint is the focus on the course of development of Polish ethnography
(ethnology) during the period before World War II, on positions adopted by Polish
scientists and their attitude to various theoretical directions of ethno- and sociology
and world anthropology as a starting point for postwar ethnography, which was
deliberately abandoned or, on the contrary, maintained and refreshed by it for the
purpose of preservation and further development of the Polish school of
ethnography from new positions appropriate to us. The third criterion of evaluation
of ethnography for the last 30 years can be the usefulness of works from this period
in relation to current tasks of ethnography (concerning practice, information and
popularisation as well as contribution to the theory and development of science) as
we perceive them today. Here, we can immediately point out that this setting of new
tasks of ethnography and criticism of previous attitudes and directions is a
characteristic feature of many opinions, particularly publications, from the
aforementioned period. It is a register of achievements, but also shortcomings with
which we are entering a new period and which we must realise, at the same time
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remembering what was done in particular conditions of development of science and
achievements in the form of preparation of a new staff ready to undertake these new
tasks. After all, achievements are also people and their attitude to the subject-matter
of our work, their problem recognition skills, research methods and competence to
use results of their work in everyday life.
As we know, Polish ethnography entered the postwar period as a discipline with
magnificent traditions of development from the turn of the 19th century, i.e. from the
Age of Enlightenment and the climate of the Commission of National Education.
This circle of scientists and activists of the Enlightenment conceived an idea about
the need to include underprivileged social classes in the history of the nation and
seek important values in their artistic output that would distinguish the culture of our
society. The history of the Polish folklore science and ethnography of the 19th and
the 20th century till World War I is a history of intermingling of two trends arising
from different, but complementary sources of inspiration: the practical trend of
interest in the situation and culture of the village, its future and past arising from
political, social, economic and cultural reasons and the theoretical academic trend
seeking examples of theories of cultural development in folk culture. The discipline
that came into being at the border of these trends was the Polish school of
ethnography, whose tradition has survived to a certain extent till today. In my
opinion, it is characterised by a lively attitude to research on the culture of one’s
own country, including particularly the culture of peasantry, response to current
problems resulting from the situation of the country as well as empiricism and teambased performance of field works. At the same time, it is open to external models of
research on contemporary directions of social sciences, ethnology, anthropology and
sociology. It is able to co-operate with other sciences relating to the human being
and culture. It engages through its outstanding figures in theoretical and empirical
studies regarding the culture of different societies of the world, including
civilisationally retarded tribal communities. However, the common element for
many directions and methods of research is often the culture of one’s own country,
including the culture of peasantry.
This culture is considered mainly from two viewpoints: 1) its traditional
character understood as historical continuity and the preservation of traces of archaic
cultural systems in contemporary culture, 2) its variability in time and, primarily,
mechanisms of this variability. This last problem, which fascinates us also in present
times, serves as a basis for research on the folklore of various ages, irrespective of
whether they were aimed at restraining the variability process, or rather at acquiring
experiences for the management of this process and its acceleration according to the
positivistic theory. Or, as in the cultural-historical school, the knowledge of the
mechanism of cultural transformations was regarded only as a key to the
reconstruction of very distant historical processes.
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As regards academic studies on folk culture, its archaisms and distinctness of
features of Polish culture (and, at the same time, amateur studies connected with
them), they reflect the spirit of the age and the situation of ethnography of many
European countries. The original place of ethnography is connected with history,
which it supports by acquiring previously unknown fields of source research for
national history. These fields include rural culture and distinct cultural features of
regions of the country that are distinguished by their location, conditions of
historical development and degree of inclusion in transformation processes.
However, ethnology has other functions, too. At least since the middle of the 19th
century, ethnography (its publishing houses and organisations) have taken over, in
co-operation with other social and natural sciences, functions of theoretical
inspiration of empirical research, improvement of its research methods through the
formulation of new questions for sources and the construction of new conceptual
schemes for their analysis and an attempt at making a synthesis in categories of the
theory of social and cultural development.
If we look at Polish ethnography (and some related historical disciplines of the
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19 and the 20th century) from the perspective of kinds of questions that it asks to
the folk culture and the national culture of its own country as the subject-matter of
its research (as well as foreign cultures encountered by numerous travellers and then
emigrants, exiles, political activists and scientists in European and Asian countries),
we can determine a series of these questions, which were gradually becoming more
urgent. The first questions concerned the nature of this culture: is it folk, regional or
national culture? What was this culture like in its pure Polish and Slavic form in the
past? Directions adopted in the second half of the 19th century bring a wave of
questions about the origin and paths of cultural development. Depending on the
direction, these are questions about various stages of cultural evolution represented
by particular communities or about primitive sources and routes of migration of
human groups and products of culture. Thus, it is a question about about reasons of
the situation that we see today. This involves also a question about the mechanism
of transformations, which appears in all historical directions dealing with the origin
of phenomena. Finally, the last group of questions asked till now concerns the
primary problem, rules of functioning of systems of culture, possibilities of
forecasting and management of changes in the system.
What is a characteristic feature of Polish ethnography, is not the very fact of
occurrence of this series of questions (which, after all, occur in other directions,
too), but the time of their occurrence in Polish science, which was concurrent to a
large extent with the time when such questions were raised by world ethnography.
Their occasionally simultaneous occurrence with a large differentiation of types and
levels of research is a characteristic feature, too.
As we know, from the middle of the 19th century till 1939 in Polish ethnography
we can find not only a reflection of almost all major directions of European
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ethnography, but also initial attempts to build separate schools connected mainly
with chairs of ethnography (ethnology, some chairs of sociology) at universities,
which referred to European ethnography on the one hand and to Polish experiences
on the other hand.
However, one characteristic feature of the ethnography of the interwar period, i.e.
the period which contributed mainly to the establishment of Poland’s own unique
university schools on the border of Polish and foreign directions of ethnology, is the
fact that theoretical assumptions and guidelines adopted by these schools were used,
among others (and often in the first place), in handbooks or larger monographic
works on Polish and Slavic folk culture prepared by their authors. Here I mean
critical evolutionism of Kazimierz Moszyński, reflected by his irreplaceable work
Kultura ludowa Słowian (Folk Culture of the Slavs), the quantitative method of Jan
Czekanowski, selected assumptions of the French school of sociology present in
works of Jan Stanisław Bystroń, diffusionism of Adam Fischer and Stanisław
Poniatowski, phenomenology of Cezaria Ehrenkreutz and the integral method of
Kazimierz Dobrowolski. The traditions of Marxism are represented by Ludwik
Krzywicki and Stefan Czarnowski.
Some of the synthetic works constituting a summary and representation of
directions whose development was interrupted by the war were printed even after
World War II. Interdisciplinary disputes over the cradle of Slavic culture, which
were supported by profound studies of new sources and had been started earlier from
those different positions of pre-war schools, were continued for a long time after the
war. When these discussions recur nowadays on the initiative of archaeologists,
ethnography joins them already from different positions: not a study of relicts, but
regularities of development of tribal cultures and interdependences of various types
of economy. It is only one of the examples of fundamental changes of theoretical
attitudes and methods of work between that period and the current moment.
Alongside this academic trend of ethnography there is the second trend, which can
be defined as an amateur one. At the end of the interwar period, this trend
encompassed mainly regional activists and young people belonging to sightseeing
tour circles. This movement made use of inspirations and help of university centres;
it sometimes supported them in their field work, but most often it responded only to
the first simplest historical questions: what is and what was. This trend has survived
and recurs from time to time nowadays, but most often in the form of participation
in the creation of new museum resources, the formation of folklore bands or the
work of the “Cepelia” folk industry co-operative and cultural centres. It also
manifests itself in an increasingly more urgent demand for the presentation of the
former folk art (which is now becoming a thing of the past and is not maintained by
the oral tradition any more) by scientific institutions (primarily museums).
Polish ethnography entered the period of building of a new cultural reality of the
state resurrected after World War II in new political and social systems 1) with
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developed characteristics of lively interest in folk (peasant) culture as a symbol of
important values for national culture, for reconstruction of its paths of development
and construction of the model of the future, 2) with experiences of empirical, teambased and energetic research that had been undertaken relatively early (in
comparison to other European countries). They were supported by institutions that
can be called regional because of their scope of activity, but also by interpartitional
institutions and associations or those that were later active in Poland within its
borders from the interwar period, e.g., the Polish Academy of Skills or the Polish
Ethnological Society, which has existed till today since 1895. Outstanding works
were created by individual researchers, particularly Oskar Kolberg. The interwar
period of independent Poland resulted in the transfer of the organisation of field
work to the growing number of regional museums, institutes and regional
associations; 3) with social interest in rural culture, particularly its works of art, that
was maintained in the spirit of the Young Poland (Młoda Polska) movement by
institutions promoting the home industry and the rural cottage industry. The
aforementioned handbooks and guides to Polish and Slavic ethnography deriving
from the circle of new chairs of ethnography promoted an outlook on folk culture,
mainly its archaisms, from the perspective of its formal richness, origin and
connections with neighbouring cultures and the reconstruction of the outcome of
forms in the evolution and progress process. The detachment of some chairs of
ethnography (particularly from the circle of the cultural-historical school) from
issues of Polish folk culture (its empirical research) and inclinations towards
comparative studies of world cultures was reflected by the participation of
representatives of these chairs in interdisciplinary collective syntheses as well as
theoretical publications. Part of them concerned the riddles of the past. As regards
present-day and future issues, they became the domain of research and publishing
activity mainly for sociologists and economists, but also for interdisciplinary
research institutions, towards the end of the interwar period.
II. NEW TASKS OF POSTWAR ETHNOGRAPHY
We refer to directions marked by the tradition of development of social sciences
in Poland and the place occupied by ethnography within their scope by searching for
the common trend of the Polish school of ethnography and its continuation after
World War II that was assumed at the beginning of this study. At the same time,
however, we must assume the need to emphasise fundamental changes. They
manifest themselves in different ways in various spheres of formation of scientific
life in the People’s Republic of Poland. Fundamental changes were inevitable when
the social and cultural reality under examination changed substantially and is still
undergoing revolutionary transformations. After all, as Kazimierz Dobrowolski
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points out (1958): ”Research disciplines, their subject-matter, scope of research and
methods constitute a historical category, because they are subject to constant
transformations”. It is, therefore, not surprising that this most dynamic period of
political, systemic, economic and cultural changes after World War II is also a
period of constantly recurring discussions and disputes about the place of
ethnography among social sciences, about more unequivocal, but not too narrow (as
often perceived by representatives of other disciplines) determination of its tasks and
borders of the subject-matter of research and about the right to undertake a
methodological experiment and explore a new (which means modern) but also its
own model of research activity (which, as I have mentioned, derives from one’s own
tradition, but also from good models borrowed from other sciences and fields)
adequate to the cultural reality of the country and general theoretical and
methodological problems under research.
If we want to evaluate our achievements in this field on the basis of publications,
i.e. scientific output (including didactics and exhibitions), we must start from
structural frames within which it is created and which undoubtedly determine the
limits of choice of the subject area of research and topics. At the same time,
attention must be paid to the tasks that are set for science by life. From the first
moments after the liberation of Poland from the German occupation and the
commencement of the restoration of the destroyed country, organisation of life
within new borders, the migration of the population from the east to the west, the
proclaimed acceleration of the civilisational progress of the village and the levelling
of the gap between economically retarded regions and leading regions, issues of
primary importance for Polish ethnography became not spontaneous initiatives
undertaken by society, but twofold tasks organised by the state and by reactivated
(and newly established) institutions (university chairs and new research institutes):
1) documentation of the vanishing cultural tradition of the village (at the beginning,
these were mainly artistic traditions, plastic art, songs, music); 2) documentation of
the transformation and shaping of the new culture, particularly in newly settled
areas.
The first directive and the gathering campaign undertaken on a large scale
immediately after the war by specially established teams for the study of music and
folk songs in various regions of the country led to the creation of another archive of
written and audio recordings, which was then gradually expanded for years, and
successively issued publications of the Division of Research on Polish Music
Folklore of the Institute of Art of the Polish Academy of Sciences under the
supervision of Marian and Jadwiga Sobiescy and currently Ludwik Bielawski. The
stocktaking of folk plastic art initiated in the Institute of Folk Art organised by Józef
Grabowski is being conducted on a regular basis currently in the Institute of Art of
the Polish Academy of Sciences in the Division of Research on Folk Art under the
supervision of Roman Reinfuss. Since 1947 a beautifully illustrated magazine
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Polska Sztuka Ludowa has been issued, with Aleksander Jackowski as its long-year
editor. Continued also by museums, the programme for research on folk plastic art
produced collections of recordings that are today regarded as treasures of national
culture. At the same time, the action of employees of Institutes, the Ministry of
Culture and Art, museums and, to a lesser extent, other institutions (chairs)
accelerated the further development of art and contemporary folklore (which is now
registered and analysed) relevant to the needs of their creators and recipients in
Poland and worldwide. The status of a folk artist is increasing thanks to these
institutions, too. At the same time, it is the field with the largest number of
descriptive monographs of various fields of art and problem syntheses that lay an
increasingly stronger emphasis on contemporary times, even though they are still
insufficient and too sparsely available. They also lead to a new theory of old and
contemporary folk art. Works concerning folk music also focus on theory and new
methods of recording and analysis of historical materials. The developing Study
Centre of Folk Dance in the Institute of Art finds it difficult to fulfil contemporary
needs. Within the structures of the Institute of Literary Studies of the Polish
Academy of Sciences the Department of Folk Literature was created. Headed by
Janusz Krzyżanowski and recently by Helena Kapełuś; the Department conducts
research on historical verbal folklore, its systematics and the history of Polish
folklore studies.
In the postwar period, Franciszek Piaścik as head of one of the chairs of
architecture at the Technical University of Warsaw, referring to the activity of his
professor Oskar Sosnowski in the last years of the interwar period, initiated an
interenvironmental campaign for the stocktaking of traditional historic rural wooden
buildings. Such campaign is also conducted by technical universities in Kraków and
Gdańsk and by Prof. Ignacy F. Tłoczek at the Academy of Agriculture in Warsaw.
Finally, the campaign for stock-taking and protection of traditional objects of folk
culture is the task of the growing number of ethnographic museums and departments
(within multidepartmental museums) as well as open-air museums. It has recently
been promoted by the slogan “Folk Culture – National Property” put forward by the
Ministry of Culture and Art, which is the basis for a 4-year campaign for uniting of
efforts of various institutions for the popularisation and protection of culture.
The second direction of research – documentation of transformation processes,
especially those occurring in western and northern Poland – was undertaken, in the
first place, by some chairs of ethnography and sociology at universities and newly
established institutes, such as Silesian Institutes in Katowice and Opole, the Western
Institute in Poznań, the Masurian Institute in Olsztyn and initially the Baltic
Institute. Not all Institutes have survived or retained ethnography in the scope of
their research. Among the new institutions that were created later it is worth
mentioning the W. Kętrzyński Research Centre, which has conducted intensive field
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research on transformation processes and the cultural integration of the Warmian
and Masurian village for many years.
As regards university chairs, studies of transformations were made primarily by
scientists such as Kazimierz Dobrowolski, who took up the subject of transformation
and urbanisation of the Podkarpacie village at the Chair of Ethnology and Sociology
of the Jagiellonian University headed by him already in the 1930s, Stanisław
Ossowski and Stefan Nowakowski – professors of sociology from the University of
Warsaw, Paweł Rybicki from the University of Wrocław (later the Jagiellonian
University). Then western and northern regions of Poland were studied by chairs of
ethnography in Poznań (Józef Burszta), Wrocław (Roman Reinfuss, Adolf Nasz),
Toruń (Jadwiga Klimaszewska, Bożena Stelmachowska) and Kraków as well as the
Department of Ethnography of the Institute of History of Material Culture in
Kraków (Mieczysław Gładysz). The study centre of formation of a new community
and culture in Bieszczady – the Department of Ethnography of the Institute of
History of Material Culture (IHMC) of the Polish Academy of Sciences (PAS) in
Warsaw (Maria Biernacka). In the last few years, increasingly more intense
processes of transformation and urbanisation of the Polish village encompassing not
only lands resettled after the war, but the entire country, including particularly
suburban villages (mainly in the area of Kraków), villages of economically and
civilisationally retarded regions making up for their delay (such as Kurpie) or
villages of regions being industrialised became a field of intensive research
conducted both by chairs of ethnography of almost all universities, e.g., by
Departments of Ethnography of IHMC of PAS and, finally, by new research
institutions of the Institute of Agricultural Economics, the Institute of Sociology and
Philosophy of PAS, the Department of Research on Industrialised Areas of PAS, the
Institute of Development of Rural Areas and Agriculture under the supervision of
Dyzma Gałaj, which was established a few years ago, and by chairs of sociology at
universities. In works of young ethnographers, new subjects and modern methods of
analysis of materials (including statistical methods) are undertaken. It is not only a
question of a source description based on the observation of ongoing processes, but
also of their evaluation in terms of quantity and grasping of mechanisms of
transformations (particularly the correlation between changes of needs and the living
standard of peasants with changes of the professional and social-economic structure)
for the purpose of building a model of transformation. And this model in turn should
be included as a result of expertises being conducted upon order and used in
practical actions.
We can risk the statement that already the first years after the end of the war
marked the scope and the subject area of socially and scientifically important tasks
of ethnography and that ethnography itself did not ignore the needs of the epoch and
opportunities to register important problems created by it. Obviously, this refers not
only to resettled lands, but the entire process of promotion of villages of various
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regions, migration to towns and the transfer of urban models to rural areas,
modernisation of rural economy, changes of its structure, the level of consumption
and the shaping of new needs and aspirations. Works undertaken initially by some
centres (spreading their interest out to the culture of workers coming from rural
areas, too) that were often postulated as a keener interest of ethnography in
contemporary times have become today a common topic for all university
institutions, Academies and many museums. They are also a basis for discussion
about the model of change, the future of culture, practical social and cultural actions
involving representatives of other disciplines, ethnographers of other countries,
activists and the Cepelia movement. An example of this can be recently published
results of a session devoted to changes as well as the participation of ethnographers
in works and sessions of sociologists, speeches at international sessions and in
foreign publications, mutual research expeditions with ethnographers of other
countries devoted to the problems of the socialistic village (Bulgaria) or in
Mongolia.
However, the path of development of ethnography within that period was not
simple, although it led, according to the tradition, from the lively response to current
problems and from empirical research to scientific and theoretical reflections and
the elaboration of new methods of research. We can risk the statement that
ethnography repeated its former path in the situation of outstanding cultural
transformations. However, it had to adopt an attitude to the already existing schools
and refresh a memory of some earlier directions to which it intended to refer
explicitly in order to return to the requirements of modern times at a later time.
In one of the evaluations of the postwar period, attention was drawn aptly to the
huge development of ethnographic works of this period, which substantially
exceeded all previous periods. At the same time, however, their spontaneity and lack
of co-ordination and response to one systematically implemented plan were
emphasised. I cannot agree to such evaluation. I think that the history of postwar
ethnography is an accurate reflection of tasks entrusted to it and methods of
scientific work made available to it (the organisational framework of science). It is
also a manifestation of a nevertheless stubborn attempt to fulfil tasks on a broader
scale and to combine empiricism with theory and rules of field work elaborated by
it. If there are still many shortcomings here, they occur with regard to the broad
scope of this work and the personnel that is still too small and is sometimes utilised
only to a limited extent.
III. FORMATION OF A NEW POLISH SCHOOL OF ETHNOGRAPHY
After the end of the war, only 3 professors (Kazimierz Dobrowolski, Eugeniusz
Frankowski, Kazimierz Moszyński) returned to chairs of ethnography and could
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continue their directions of research and modify them in the new situation. In spite
of his return to the Chair of Sociology in Warsaw, Jan Stanisław Bystroń lectured
only for a short time due to illness. New chairs were taken over by people who did
not refer so directly to their masters from the interwar period. In the new situation of
research on the village and its culture and new ideological trends, an increasingly
sharper criticism of the ahistoricism of many former schools, such as functionalism
and the intensifying discussion about the subject and the place of new ethnography,
they look for their own proper perspective on contemporary transformation
processes in the first place. Here one feature of the Polish school – its response to
topical needs – will become apparent again. It is both its strength that we appreciate
and its weakness. It detaches the Polish school too often from the research that is
most frequently defined as primary in official nomenclature and, when translated
into the language of our science, would have to be defined as studies on the theory
of historical processes that are substantially ahead of current practice. However,
looking at the already huge number of works published as a result of team studies of
various chairs and the increasingly often published summaries of theoretical
opinions of university lecturers, we can risk the statement about the existence of new
schools that are less inconsistent than the former ones. The common history of
ethnography, its common problems connected with life, discussions within PES,
IHMC of PAS and in their publications, or the diligent tracing of the direction of
development of other disciplines undoubtedly contributed to a sort of unification of
the methodological attitude of the currently older generation of ethnographers.
The Łódź school headed by Kazimiera Zawistowicz-Adamska, which was
interested in historical social structures and contemporary changes of peasant
economy as well as its artistic output and folklore, referred to the old schools of
Krzywicki and Czarnowski. Following the example of Czekanowski and Moszyński,
Józef Gajek stressed the problem of the ethnographic atlas of Poland as one of the
most important issues in postwar works. The direction of research on folk art, rural
areas of Wielkopolska and other than Polish cultures of the world that was
determined by Frankowski is currently referred to by the Poznań centre. In his study
of the African Luo tribe and in his work on the anthropological conception of the
human being, Andrzej Waligórski referred to the issues of functionalism.
Among scientists referring to schools of Moszyński and Dobrowolski
simultaneously or alternately there were: Maria Znamierowska-Prüfferowa, Jadwiga
Klimaszewska, Mieczysław Gładysz, Roman Reinfuss, Adolf Nasz, Witold
Dynowski and the Warsaw school. Józef Burszta referred to Dobrowolski and Zofia
Sokolewicz referred to Bystroń’s works apart from functionalism and structuralism.
Our younger colleagues return to these last directions, too, becoming also
acquainted with most recent and continuously existing foreign directions, such as
phenomenology, neoevolutionism, structuralism etc., for their use, evaluation and
criticism. However, none of these foreign or national directions is continued. The
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exception is undoubtedly the integral method of Kazimierz Dobrowolski, which has
been developed systematically until now; with its model of traditional peasant
culture, theory of historical background, cultural disharmony, spontaneous
processes, it is recognised and continued (and debated about) in works of many
centres. At the same time, however, we look back more often on former directions
today, looking for interesting methodological proposals that would be useful in our
current work and could be combined with a new both individualising and
generalising outlook on the cultural reality being examined. Among contemporary
Polish researchers dealing with folk, peasant and working-class cultures and tribal
cultures of various peoples of the world, proportions of their interest in a specific
territory, period of time, detailed topic and the level of generalisation of conclusions
drawn from empirical materials are shaped in various ways. They can also differ in
their choices of a method adequate to the topic and problems of their work. They
can look for it in other disciplines. However, they cannot underestimate their
contribution to the old school of ethnography, both when it comes to factual
materials and their interpretation and methods of work. Today we cannot cross out
unique information and its evaluations that are contained in Moszyński’s works such
as Kultura ludowa Słowian or Człowiek (The Human Being), or statements
concerning the appropriateness and direction of changes that were formulated by
other aforementioned ethnologists and sociologists of culture. There are still many
things that we can learn from them, particularly commitment and serious attitude to
work, diligence and reliability in the formulation of conclusions, their
thoughtfulness, sometimes courage or outstanding humbleness in dealing with
problems of human culture.
If we look at the direction of development of Polish ethnography after World
War II from the perspective of the possibility to continue pre-war trends, their
collapse or adaptation to new ideological trends and methodological requirements of
dialectical and historical materialism, regardless of all rises and collapses, we will
be struck by a consistent struggle for: 1) possibly the most objective (although from
the position of contemporary requirements of research methods) summary of
achievements of a majority of older directions and the determination of one’s own
position (directly after the war – mainly Moszyński, then Dobrowolski) towards
those different directions; 2) expansion, regardless of the original direction and aim,
of requirements of field work of an ethnographer (and a sociologist-empiricist at the
same time) in the first place, mainly with regard to the observation of contemporary
processes; 3) historicisation of the view of the cultural change process by referring it
to productive forces and production relations that determine it to a large extent, i.e.
to a certain economic formation and, within its scope, to a specific social group.
Further common points between newly established university institutions, the
Academy of Sciences and, to some extent, museums include the aforementioned
pressure on research into changes of the contemporary rural culture, going back only
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as far as human memory can reach (3 generations), which means the recognition of
oral tradition as a primary historic source apart from observation, but together with
the official recognition of other sources (including written sources) as valid, even if
they were used rarely in practice.
What also binds domestic scientific institutions of ethnography together, is the
fact of being subject to similar phases of interest in specific problems and detailed
topics, which was characteristic of the postwar period for a long time, however,
along with permanently occurring some kind of specialisation of centres. It resulted,
to some extent, from the character of professional training of heads and employees
of these institutions, but it was also selected and consciously developed.
Already in 1959, when characterising paths of development of postwar
ethnography, I pointed out its 3 stages. The 1st period of reconstruction is
characterised by the creation of ethnographic institutions (chairs and museums or
ethnographic departments in multidepartmental museums) in a larger number than
during the interwar period, their spontaneous development in turbulent times of
formation of ideology, attacks on some western directions (functionalism) and static
descriptions of traditional rural culture, along with the aforementioned intensifying
official interest of governing bodies in the documentation of folk art. During that
period, Moszyński states the principles of ”critical evolutionism” represented by
him, whereas Bystroń and Witold Dynowski, Head of the only Chair of
Ethnography that has survived till now, publish a popular sketch defining the
character of folk culture.
On the occasion of the jubilee of the Polish Academy of Skills, the first outline
of the history of ethnography in Poland is published. Dobrowolski puts forward
postulates of research models and characterises the importance of research specified
by him as ”historical and field research”, and Zawistowicz-Adamska presents
reflections on her own research on a rural community.
Reactivated thanks to the energy of Czekanowski and Józef Gajek, the Polish
Ethnological Society (based originally in Lublin, now in Wrocław) becomes a
platform of discussion, agreement and joint activity for all ethnographers in Poland.
It continues the issuing of Lud and undertakes new publication series. In this and
subsequent period, the following publications of PES begin to come out and exist
till now: Lud – the most regularly issued journal (with a break in years 1951-1954);
Prace i Materiały Etnograficzne – a journal publishing results of works concerning
various regions of the country and problems (such as economic co-operation in
agricultural work, non-agricultural activities, cultural transformations) presented at
annual scientific sessions of the Society or resulting from works of particular
centres; in the later period, Łódzkie Studia Etnograficzne – a periodical of similar
character, which publishes mainly results of works of the Łódź centre; regional
issues of Atlas Polskich Strojów Ludowych and issues of Literatura Ludowa devoted
to various regions of the country are the most widely circulated publications in
37
society. Edited by Czesław Hernas, the latter changed their profile into a specialistic
one a few years ago. Archiwum Etnograficzne publishes also works by amateur
regionalists. Prace Etnologiczne is devoted to cultures of other continents. A diary
of Czekanowski’s African studies from the beginning of the 20th century is also
published there. Issues of Biblioteka Popularna are rare but valuable publications.
PES makes first attempts to prepare the Polish Ethnographical Atlas. Since 1961,
Dzieła wszystkie Oskara Kolberga edited by J. Burszta have been published.
After the war PES became an outstanding publishing centre; in the last few years
its activity has become less dynamic, although at the same time the requirements
have increased. Both immediately after the war and currently it has also become the
most important institution caring about the interests of the discipline as such, which
connects dispersed ethnographic institutions, informs about the progress of their
research, creates a platform for mutual discussions, information and confrontation of
opinions, their communication on an external forum for the purpose of ensuring the
proper place of our discipline within the new structure of science in Poland.
This last task has become particularly important in the 2nd period of development
of science in Poland, which I once called the period of ideological reconstruction
and which involves the restructuring of university studies in ethnography (since
1948, with sociology liquidated until 1956) along with preparations for the 1st
Congress of Polish Science evaluating the achievements of science from the
perspective of requirements of Marxism as well as the rules of organisation of
Polish science in the new Polish institution – the Polish Academy of Sciences (with
a seat in Warsaw and institutions that have recently been also divisions in many
areas of Poland). This last institution has also absorbed the Polish Academy of
Skills that had existed until then. Already in 1953 the Organisational Commission of
the Institute of History of Material Culture of the Polish Academy of Science (PAS)
organised the first field works for the Polish Ethnographical Atlas, and a year later
ethnography became a separate department in the Institute beside the archaeology of
Poland and general archaeology, Mediterranean archaeology and the history of
medieval and modern material culture of Poland. This moment marks the beginning
of the 3rd (the last) period of ethnography in the People’s Republic of Poland. This
arrangement has survived till today, even if the internal organisation, the number of
institutions and laboratories, the small number of personnel and the subject area of
works has undergone certain changes and the discussion on the need to create a
separate Institute of Ethnography at the Academy has recurred regularly with new
strength for the last few years. Today we can talk about the 4th period, in which
Polish ethnography, without losing contacts and without abandoning co-operation
with archaeology and history of material culture within IHMC of PAS, has
established more profound relations and discussions about changes of contemporary
culture with the sociology of the village, town and culture and has developed its cooperation with world science to a larger extent, including the ethnography of
38
socialistic countries. For the nearly 10 years, its scope of interest has also been
moving from the ethnography of Poland to works dealing with fields neglected after
the war, tribal cultures and contemporary changes of the culture of non-European
peoples. In the contemporary period (5th period), involvement in works relating to
the theory of culture and the methodology of research has increased. The latter are
not limited to historical issues and traditional folk culture, but mainly make use of
materials regarding recent changes, their mechanisms and the proper formation of
the new culture of the future.
IV. MAJOR DIRECTIONS AND TOPICS OF RESEARCH
Through its incorporation into IHCM, ethnography was formally subordinated to
history and apparently detached from some of its important fields, such as oral and
dance folklore, music, plastic folk art, which had already been included in the
activity of other institutes, and focused primarily on material culture. I write
”apparently”, because, even though in practice oral folklore, particularly music
folklore requiring specialistic preparation, was not the subject of research in IHMC
of PAS or chairs of ethnography, remaining within the scope of interest of
specialistic chairs and Institutes of Art and Literary Studies, and dance folklore
struggled hard to win a place in this structure, ethnography did not resign from
research on plastic art (as a part of monographic research on the ethnographic region
– works on the art of Kurpie residents by Jacek Olędzki) even in IHMC of PAS.
Material culture, which was regarded at that time as the most neglected field of
ethnographic research - and there was much truth in this opinion – came to the
foreground of field research for the Polish Ethnographical Atlas (that have been
conducted till now by the Department and then by the working group in Wrocław
under the supervision and edition of Józef Gajek) as well as systematic research on
regions (or selected villages): in the Kurpie region by the Warsaw Department under
the supervision of the undersigned, in Opole Silesia under the direction of Gładysz,
in Wielkopolska by E. Frankowski, then by the Poznań branch of IHMC of PAS
under the supervision of Maria Frankowska and for some time in Kujawy under the
supervision of Maria Znamierowska-Prüfferowa. This was a consequence of the fact
that this field involved the possibilities of dating changes, associating them with
external macrostructure transformation processes and the current state of
traditionality or openness to transformations, i.e. traditional distinct features and the
formation of new ethnographic regions of the Polish village. The weakly advanced
research on tools and techniques of traditional agriculture (which were not always
expressed in print) or more strongly developed research on farming and traditional
herding, home industry and craft was supposed to be an introduction to
comprehensive research checking the model of interdependency of productive forces
39
and production relations as well as relations between conditions of life and work and
behaviour models and the system of needs in the historical reality of the Polish
village of the 19th / 20th century.
Many works concerning material culture, including particularly works
concerning traditional building construction in various regions of the country (Maria
Fryczowa, Maria Gładyszowa, Franciszek Klonowski, Zofia Staszczak, Marian
Pokropek, Tadeusz Wróblewski and the team supervised by Maria Frankowska), are
also prepared within university chairs. These last works differ from stock-taking
carried out simultaneously by architects in that their field of research goes beyond
“classical” regional building construction and attention is drawn to the variety of
forms occurring in these regions, their variability within the period covered by
memory and social space within the region. They also encompass farm building
construction, including windmills (H. Wesołowska) and changes of the interior
arrangement standard (G. Ungeheuer). A. Kowalska-Lewicka, Z. Szromba-Rysowa
and J. P. Dekowski write about food, and B. Garyga, W. Nowosz, M. Pokropek and
others write about agriculture.
Among works concerning fishing tools it is particularly worth mentioning the
work of Maria Znamierowska-Prüfferowa about puncturing tools (as well as the
fishing department created by her in the museum in Toruń). Works of the Łódź
school bring up (at the chair and then in the institution of PAS) problems of herding
considered as a historical process in terms of attitude to nature, economic relations
and interpersonal relations (Bronisława Kopczyńska-Jaworska, Wanda Jostowa),
rafting (Maria Misińska), mashoperie1 and contemporary transformations of the
structure of the seaside village with various professional traditions (Jadwiga
Kucharska). In Poznań, Warsaw and the Kraków school of Dobrowolski and
Gładysz works concerning social relations and their reflection in cultural models are
prepared, including the peasant family (Danuta Markowska, Anna Zadrożyńska),
small gentry villages (Maria Biernacka), organisation of the industry and rural trade
(Wanda Paprocka, Zbigniew Jasiewicz, Irena Nizińska, Anna ZambrzyckaKunachowicz, Zbigniew Biały, Anna Kowalska-Lewicka, Władysław Kwaśniewicz
et al.) and changes of the professional structure and culture, e.g. under the influence
of an industrial plant. In the chair of Dobrowolski and his division in IHMC of PAS
(and additionally in the centre of ethnographers-museologists of Katowice and
Bytom) the most advanced works concerned the formation of separate cultural
models and their awareness among workers coming from villages (Danuta
Dobrowolska, Edward Pietraszek, Maria Żywirska, Józef Ligęza et al.). Finally, both
publishing houses of PAS and PES issue works prepared both in and outside
university centres, e.g. in Olsztyn, including works concerning rural rituals and their
1
This word originates from the Dutch term maatschappi (“society”) and means a group of fishermen
going fishing to the sea together; a kind of company existing among Kashubians in Pomerania since
the Middle Ages till today – editor’s note.
40
transformations (Jadwiga Klimaszewska, Stanisław Dworakowski, Zofia
Sokolewicz, Kazimiera Zawistowicz-Adamska, Anna Szyfer, Krystyna
Kwaśniewicz), social compulsion and the group’s sanctions towards an individual
who does not comply with models of behaviour adopted by it (Maria WieruszewskaAdamczyk). Traditional folk knowledge, particularly astronomy and its changes, is
discussed in publications of PAS (Maria Gładyszowa) and the Centre in Olsztyn
(Anna Szyfer).
It is hard to deny the statement that works regarding issues of the traditional
material culture of the Polish village were largely intensified during the period of
inclusion of ethnography in IHMC of PAS and simultaneous intensification of the
process of rapid vanishing of this culture in the village. However, they were not the
only topic and were devoted not only to formal descriptions of tools and techniques
of products of culture (and there are shortcomings in this field today), but also
largely, in accordance with guidelines for tasks of the Institute expressed in
manifesto articles in Kwartalnik Historii Kultury Materialnej in 1953-1954, to social
aspects of development of culture. The model of development of society and culture
that was adopted in general assumptions and results from the Marxist theory of
social development was enriched in specific studies with practical requirements
drawn from some directives and experiences of functionalism, in the atlas from the
historical-cultural school (historical interpretation of the range of products), but
primarily from new research experiences of new Polish schools of ethnography,
particularly the school of Kazimierz Dobrowolski, then the Łódź school of
Kazimiera Zawistowicz-Adamska, the Poznań school specialising in research on
western lands and folklorism of Józef Burszta, or the school of syncretic research on
religions of indigenous peoples of America – Maria Frankowska. The history of
formation of these directions as well as their reflection in specific works is
documented mainly by publications of IHMC and then the Sociological Commission
of the Kraków Branch of PAS.
In Etnografia Polska Dobrowolski presents his model of traditional peasant
culture, which was built on the example of southern Małopolska and was so useful
for further research. Then he introduces reflections on the theory of culture in a
series of articles. They are contained in publications of the Sociological Commission
of the Kraków Branch of PAS that were issued in 1966 and 1967. They will have a
significant impact on the direction of works in other centres.
Further 19 volumes of Etnografia Polska and nearly 30 volumes of Biblioteka
(and Prace Etnograficzne that were duplicated for some time) contain a history of
new studies undertaken both in IHCM of PAS and at university chairs or partly in
museums. They are discussed in another article.
After 1959 – the date of conclusion of the first agreement with Slovakian
ethnographers regarding the co-ordination of research on the herding and culture of
the Carpathians, which was later extended to other countries of south-eastern Europe
41
– we can find in IHMC’s publications some results of conferences and research
conducted in these countries. After the reorganisation of IHMC in 1962, the
liquidation of the separateness of departments and the establishment of a new,
constantly needed Department of General Ethnography (under the supervision of
Witold Dynowski) beside currently existing Departments and Divisions dealing only
with the ethnography of Poland and the change of the profile of the Poznań Division
into a division of American studies (Maria Frankowska), results of co-operation of
Polish ethnographical expeditions to Bulgaria and Mongolia with ethnographers of
the aforementioned countries as well as works in the field of American studies were
contained in publications. For Polish ethnography, these works meant entering new
areas of research that previously seemed to be underestimated in the postwar
organisation of sciences; besides, in the interwar period and immediately after the
war, in spite of the undoubtedly existing interest in comparative materials and the
general theory of development of culture (requiring such comparative research),
these areas could be entered only by certain outstanding researchers and only at the
price of full joining of the stream of a foreign (usually Western) science. Currently
we are on our best way to establish permanent co-operation and scientific contacts
with foreign science by the Academy, universities and museums and to participate in
international conferences on a much larger scale than previously. This will allow us
to confront the results of our research with world achievements in an increasingly
better way, to participate in international discussions on the level of co-operation
with socialistic countries (with which usually bilateral contacts were maintained
permanently, and multilateral contacts manifested themselves, among others, in a
co-operation in the seat of the editorial staff of the Demos magazine) and other
European (within the scope of Societé Internationale d'Ethnographie et du Folklore)
and non-European countries (e.g. on the occasion of Congresses of Anthropological
and Ethnological Sciences). As the last annual issues of Etnografia Polska and Lud
suggest, Polish ethnography keeps track of new directions of world science more
and more intensively, carrying out their evaluation and criticism, too. What has also
become more distinct than in previous years in these journals, is the contemporary
tendency to assume individual research attitudes and to seek new problems that have
not been formulated so explicitly until now, which concern not only the influence of
external factors on objectively detectable changes of culture (its standard in the
village), but also human attitudes, growing of needs and, at the same time, the
necessity to become familiar with more precise (i.e. scientific) rules of research
procedure that are worked out by various social sciences and, primarily, by exact
sciences (mathematical logic).
As far as the ethnography of Poland is concerned, we have turned from the
positivistic principle of empirical work, gathering of sources for particular epochs
and lands in various fields, picking-out and summing of facts for the purpose of their
presentation (and, primarily, their variability in time) in spatial and temporal
42
arrangements (which principle was adopted at the beginning of the co-operation with
other historical disciplines) towards discussion and co-operation in issues
concerning contemporary transformations of the village, which are considered
primarily in terms of juxtaposition of 2 models: the old model and the new model in
folk culture, conditions of life and attitudes of the peasant society, with rural
sociologists building general models for empirical research on the peasant
community, the local community, the family, the farm etc. (Bogusław Gałęski, Jan
Turowski, Ryszard Turski, Zbigniew T. Wierzbicki et al.), demographers and
statisticians. What ethnography contributes to this co-operation, is a better
knowledge of a specific environment, its development and mechanisms of changes,
i.e. all those possible variants of historical processes which, in Dobrowolski’s
opinion, constitute a sort of historical background for contemporary processes and
must be learned for the purpose of proper interpretation and prediction of the latter.
However, the second direction of the search – a study of transformations of tribal
communities in their contact with a higher external civilisation, another social
structure, economy and politics – is returning as well. Ethnographers co-operate
with the Study Centre of African Studies at the University of Warsaw. At the border
of research on contemporary times and history, new theoretical problems seem to
emerge. We can also observe a return of classical topics, such as the ethnogenesis of
the Slavs, which once was debated upon so ardently by followers of aboriginalism,
and the eastern descent of the Slavs, including by Czekanowski and Moszyński.
However, current Polish ethnography perceives its co-operation with archaeology in
this field mainly on the level of the theory of culture and its model (Kazimiera
Zawistowicz-Adamska, Zofia Sokolewicz, Marian Pokropek).
In the collective work on the synthesis of the ethnography of Poland that was
undertaken by IHMC of PAS (in co-operation with other centres), there is a clash of
views and experiences of various university centres and a search for a key that
would combine – as Kazimierz Dobrowolski defines it – the historic individualising
viewpoint and the sociological generalising viewpoint, synchronism and
diachronism, the functional and structural analysis of materials and its reference to
the theory of change and the general theory of social and cultural development. Our
contribution to these works consists of our Polish experiences gained so far and our
Polish input – which may be modest in terms of quantity, but is valuable for us –
into the methodological analysis of foreign directions, such as functionalism,
functionalism-structuralism or, to a lesser extent, the structuralism of the French
school or the American neoevolutionism (A. Waligórski, P. Sztompka, Z.
Sokolewicz, G. Kloska, K. Małkowska, A. Posern-Zieliński, B. KopczyńskaJaworska, L. Stomma et al.).
43
V.
CONTEMPORARY STATE OF RESEARCH, OPPORTUNITIES AND
TASKS
The analysis of the history of postwar ethnography as one trend comprising
former methodological achievements and new research directives as well as attempts
to prepare a certain synthesis of these attitudes in the undertaking of research tasks
set for our discipline in this respect does not exhaust this history. Focusing attention
mainly on central institutions and publishing houses, the Academy and universities
does not exhaust it, either. The history of ethnography in the People’s Republic of
Poland can also be presented as the sum of the history of various institutions,
including centres of non-university and academic research and museums. It is not
detached from the former one. However, it is sometimes expressed more strongly in
publications of these institutions, which may have a local thematic range and
reception at times (although not always). Currently, in search of materials for the
elaboration of a new synthesis of the ethnography of Poland and the evaluation of
the level of progress of works on the registration of elements of traditional (preindustrial) rural culture and its regional differentiation as well as transformations of
the contemporary age, we refer to those publishing series that have not been
mentioned above, Works and Materials of the Archaeological and Ethnographical
Museum in Łódź, Annual Issues of Silesian Ethnography in Wrocław, the Annual
Issue of the Ethnographical Museum in Kraków, Materials of the Museum of Folk
Construction in Sanok, Lublin Studies and Materials, Etnografia series, foreignlanguage Ethnographical Journals of the State Ethnographical Museum in Warsaw
as well as ethnographical articles in Rzeszów, Nowy Sącz, Olsztyn and other annual
issues. This material is distributed unevenly throughout the country. If we take into
account all regional works, both from museums and universities, or research centres
functioning in a growing number of regional societies, the level of progress of these
works is irregular as far as historical generalisations are concerned (with regard to
larger space and time). However, it is possible to use them as a test of correctness of
the assumed model of the character and transformations of folk culture in specific
conditions of our geographical location, history of settlement, internal divisions
(historical regions and provinces, administrative and political divisions, ranges of
ownership, class structure), the impact of centres of authority, economy and
civilisation and, finally, the impact of all of these historical and contemporary
systems on contemporary human attitudes, habits, needs and the level of
participation of various regions of the country in the contemporary process of its
reconstruction, modernisation of life and culture and levelling of distances between
the village and the city. From this perspective I do not hesitate to express a
favourable opinion on the apparently too dispersed achievements of the last 30
years. They constitute an extensive base that seems to be sufficient for the
presentation of a general outline of directions of transformations of the culture of the
44
Polish village in the 20th century. Obviously, this does not mean that all fields of life
should be analysed in an equally detailed and profound manner and that the research
should cover in a well-considered manner the entire territory of the country and all
regions whose knowledge may shed a light on the differentiation of folk culture and
the diverse course of transformation processes. However, it is not the most important
thing. It looks as if, through our interest in new problems – mainly the entire
historical context and historical typology of cultural models, objects and behaviours
being observed by us – we neglected (apart from the Atlas) the description of these
models in their full formal differentiation and spatial ranges, which introduce us – in
a problematic manner, anyway – to the old history of migration of human groups.
On the other hand, we are closer to the regional man. We become more interested in
his attitude, motivations, view of the tradition and new choices. Here we are
interested in differences between regions with various traditions, various old and
new economic and social systems and various possibilities to introduce changes. We
look for examples of typical situations rather than an excessively detailed history of
regions. From these positions it will also be easier for us to respond to practical
needs of cultural policy, expertises and forecasts concerning anticipated and possible
transformations and the redevelopment of the culture of our country.
It is not accidental that during 30 years of the People’s Republic of Poland the
largest number of studies concerning various regions of the country was devoted to
folk building construction, which has always been a popular and varied subject and
is vanishing so quickly today. However, separate studies covered also various other
fields of material culture that had previously been neglected and were considered
mainly in terms of their tools and products and their differentiation. The most
advanced studies in the field of analysis of transformations, their periodisation and
conditioning by the historical background, economy, the social structure, traditional
culture and external models in the village urbanisation process were subsequent and
less numerous, although currently popular studies of the rural family, the authority
of various professions, the attitude to land and the public opinion. They make use of
observations of the situation proper to our culture for the purpose of enriching the
general theory of changes with a knowledge of the functioning of systems of culture
in various arrangements. Studies of the philosophy of life and its changes, the folk
vision of the world and the human being, the attitude to history and the role of a
myth, ritual, custom and religion are becoming increasingly popular today.
Questions put forward in world science are applied to our cultural reality in a new
interpretation, which corresponds to our contemporary scientific attitude. They also
make use of former ethnographic materials collected by previous generations. We
start to confront these old materials increasingly often with the results that we obtain
in contemporary research, which is not always very fruitful when it comes to the
discovery of archaisms. And the latter help us to find hidden meanings of behaviour
45
models, which are not always preserved in their pure form, and their origin in
systems of values.
As regards larger historical provinces, a full multithematic regional monograph
of folk culture was devoted only to Wielkopolska (under the edition of Józef
Burszta). Works on the monograph of the new Łódź region are also in progress. As
regards southern Poland, the Lemko culture was popularised by Roman Reinfuss.
The multi-volume publication Pasterstwo Tatr Polskich i Podhala (ed. Włodzimierz
Antoniewicz) contains, among others, a reissue of works by Dobrowolski.
Dobrowolski’s students and the museum in Kraków acquainted us with the environs
of Kraków, villages of workers’ settlements; Gładysz, the “Prace Etnograficzne”
publishing house of the Jagiellonian University and the Institute in Opole prepared
works devoted to the culture of the Silesian Beskids, the Opole Silesia etc., and
Wrocław chairs and museums carried out studies of the cultural integration of
villages that were resettled after World War II (students of Adolf Nasz and Józef
Gajek, Krzysztof Kwaśniewski et al.). The same topic recurs in studies of the
University of Poznań and Museums of West Pomerania, the Lubusz Land and the
Olsztyn Centre. The Warsaw Chair undertakes works concerning Podlasie and
north-eastern Masovia and joins works of the museum and the Białystok Scientific
Society. Lublin, chairs of ethnography and the museum express interest in their
region (Gajek, Reinfuss, Janusz Świeży, Janusz Optołowicz et al.); such is also the
case of museums in Łódź, Rzeszów (Franciszek Kotula, Krzysztof Ruszel), in
Przemyśl (Krzysztof Wolski, Stefan Lew), in Sanok (Aleksander Rybicki, Jerzy
Czajkowski et al.), in Nowy Sącz, Rabka (Maria and Jan Bujak) and other cities.
Ethnographic museums in Poland employ currently the biggest number of
professional ethnographers in comparison with other institutions. Independent
ethnographic museums exist in Warsaw (Kazimierz Pietkiewicz, Krzysztof
Makulski), in Kraków (Edward Waligóra), Toruń (until recently Maria
Znamierowska-Prüfferowa, currently Aleksander Błachowski), big branches exist in
Poznań (Stanisław Błaszczyk), Wrocław (Leszek Itman), Gdańsk-Oliwa (Longin
Malicki, currently Krystyna Szałaśna) and open-air museums function in Nowogród
in the Kurpie region (created in the interwar period and restored several times by
Adam Chętnik – a regionalist and an ethnographer with a large academic record), in
Wdzydze in Kashubia (created at the beginning of the 20th century and currently
being developed), in Olsztynek in Masuria, in Kluki in West Pomerania (remains of
the Slavic culture of the Słowińcy population), Opole and Sanok. Ethnographic
departments and collections are also stored in over 100 other museums. In some of
them, works have also been started to create open-air museums. Museum employees
are both scientific employees and employees penetrating the field and preparing
collections, sometimes in the form of larger documents connected with exhibitions,
folk art competitions etc., as well as organisers of cultural life in the field and
education employees. They are specialists in issues of their land and undertake
46
thematic specialisations, particularly in museums with a nationwide reach and a
higher number of employees, competing with employees of research institutes and
chairs.
One of the specialisations that covered the relatively highest number of museum
employees is undoubtedly the specialisation in folk art, or – more precisely – plastic
art, which is in the special custody of both central institutions, the Ministry of
Culture and Art, the newly established Association of Folk Artists, “Cepelia” and
local authorities and cultural institutions. Undoubtedly, it was also because of social
demand that most synthetic works and studies devoted to the theory of art were
created in this field (Tadeusz Seweryn, Roman Reinfuss, Józef Grabowski,
Aleksander Jackowski, Ksawery Piwocki, Stanisław Błaszczyk, Kazimierz
Pietkiewicz). The level of progress of regional studies in other fields was mentioned
above. The same goes for studies of music folklore, which has recently been
documented in a series of synthetic and theoretical works (Jadwiga Sobieska,
Ludwik Bielawski, Anna Czekanowska-Kuklińska, Jan Stęszewski). Pioneer works
are studies concerning the traditional folk dance of Masovia (Grażyna Dąbrowska)
as well as contemporary verbal folklore (Dorota Simonides).
It seems that these fields of ethnographical work, which are related primarily to
contemporary rural art and amateur art and to the practice and theory of
contemporary national culture need a much larger number of employees specialising
in this field at the moment. Many of them have been absorbed by “Cepelia” so far.
There are opinions about the need to undertake studies and find answers to new
demand for reviving and transformed folklore traditions (e.g. concerning family
rituals) of both villages and cities. Issues of art and folklore (or folklorism, as
proposed by Prof. Burszta), which were formally (although not quite actually)
detached for many years from the work of a number of ethnographical institutions,
sometimes coming to the foreground of social interests and state interests, yet at the
same time being left on the margin of the university and academic mainstream,
returns to these institutions in various ways, mainly through their connections with
social institutions and organisations and through theoretical interests. However, it is
worth mentioning that the only attempts to synthesise Polish ethnography on the
nationwide level so far were Etnografia Polski (1947) by Jan Stanisław Bystroń and
the contribution of Poland to the collective publication Narody mira (1964) by
Soviet colleagues. The issues of folk art and ethnography of Poland were given little
coverage in collective historical publications, such as Historia Polski and Zarys
historii gospodarstwa wiejskiego, and were discussed slightly more extensively only
in the recent work Historia chłopów polskich issued under the supervision of Stefan
Inglot. The recently undertaken work on ethnographic synthesis must respond to this
situation.
Moving from the issues of the ethnography of Poland to the issues of European
and non-European ethnography, it must be emphasised that the former is slowly
47
gaining recognition in Etnografia Polska (Baltic countries, Ireland et at.) and is
partly represented in Lud by opinions on some directions, reviews of works and by a
university script by Wróblewski. The latter won its place in Etnografia by storm in
the 1960s, mainly for the ethnography of Africa (Krzysztof Makulski, orientalist
Tadeusz Lewicki et al.) and Asia (Krzysztof Wolski, Witold Armon, Zbigniew
Jasiewicz, Antoni Kuczyński et al.). A special place is held in publications of IHMC
to works devoted to contemporary Mongolia by Witold Dynowski and his
collaborators. Studies of indigenous peoples of America will probably be resumed
soon by a team of experts in American studies. So far there have been only sporadic
trips and penetrations in the postwar period (Anna Kowalska-Lewicka, Maria
Frankowska, Przemysław Burchard). American studies developed in the field of
research concerning changes of consciousness and the social and political function
of religious unions (Maria Frankowska, Aleksander and Mirosława PosernZieliński). It is also difficult not to notice to what extent non-European collections
have been expanded in Polish museums recently, particularly in museums in
Warsaw, partly in Kraków and in the marine museum in Szczecin. Collections are
also created thanks to a private foundation. This situation is connected with the
increase of the number of specialists educated by university chairs. However, it is
smaller than the number of specialisations in Polish ethnography; for which there are
jobs – apart from museums – in state administration and the organisation of cultural
life of the country, particularly its non-urban areas. Ethnographers are also employed
by sociological institutions. work as journalists or try to produce films. The growing
number of interested persons is attracted by interdisciplinary research and
educational institutions, e.g. the African Study Centre of the University of Warsaw.
The multiplication of research problems and questions and the undertaking of
descriptive works resulting from empirical field research on the various level of
generality of statements is a characteristic feature and necessity of contemporary
Polish ethnography, if it intends to remain, to some extent, faithful to the direction
that it has adopted since its birth, at the same time being a modern science. This
dispersion of questions is the strength and measure of the preparation of
ethnography for the present moment and for co-operation within a larger scope of
both science and practice. I think that at the moment we already have the young staff
that is prepared for such co-operation. However, we cannot abandon the things that
were introduced by the postwar period: 1) the skill of unification (and enrichment)
of requirements of the methods of ethnographic field research, particularly with
reference to the entire model of life of the contemporary community and to the
description of a museum object; 2) the ability of co-operation between centres and
particularly the spatial (less thematic) division of tasks with reference to Poland and
the world. Today the spatially divided documentation tasks, particularly those
regarding the traditional culture (and contemporary art), should be left to museums,
with tasks divided in respect of topics and problems between other centres, not for
48
the purpose of exclusion of other topics, but inspiration and encouragement to
consider them from a different research perspective. This applies to both Poland and
the world.
However, these co-ordination tasks slightly exceed the framework of possibilities
that are created by the agreement on the level of the Polish Ethnographic Society
and the Commission of Ethnography of the Committee of Sociological Sciences of
PAS. We are waiting for the promised independent Committee of Ethnography at
the Polish Academy of Science, for the revival of the defunct provision of
information about our works, for their advertisement in foreign-language
publications, which, for the time being, include only 3 volumes issued for 3
international congresses and a new journal of IHCM of PAS – Ethnologia Polona,
as well as the oldest but rarely issued publication of the State Ethnographical
Museum in Warsaw. On my part, I also postulate the reinforcement of the staff of
ethnographers so that they could not only fulfil educational tasks of the currently
insufficient number of chairs (which does not encompass the needs of various
regions of the country) and the still growing number of museums, Cepelia
companies and other economic and cultural institutions, publications, journals, radio
and television stations etc., but also undertake research tasks on a scale
corresponding to their current competences and the needs of science on various
levels. In real life, they should also serve as a link between that science and the
needs of life that, after all, gave rise to this science in the past. It should also be a
link between the culture that we learn to appreciate by examining it (here I refer both
to Polish culture and to the culture of other peoples of the world) and those who
should know more about it at the moment in order to appreciate it and make use of it
for their own good and for the better future of the world.
I think that it is the aim of our studies and the thought that can unite us.
Current tasks of Polish ethnography are: 1) to maintain all of these directions of
research and popularisation interests; 2) to make up for the delays in the field of
non-European and European research; 3) to accelerate works on the synthesis of the
ethnography of Poland and on university handbooks being prepared at the moment
(sometimes in the form of a summary of the scientific position of the older
generation, but also new ideas of young researchers); 4) to re-strengthen contacts
between various ethnographical environments in Poland (e.g. by the new
Ethnographical Section of the Committee of Sociological Sciences of PAS, through
PES and the Department of Ethnography of IHMC and its regional research teams);
5) to reinforce the ethnography popularisation campaign and results of its works as a
response to the wide social demand; 6) finally, to make the best possible use of
results of our works as expertises in practical actions and the planning of life and
culture.
Translated by: LINGUA LAB, www.lingualab.pl, Grzegorz Fik
49
50
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ETNOGRAFIA POLSKA 1945-1974
(SELECTION)
PREPARED BY: M. POKROPEK (ETNOGRAPHY OF POLAND) AND J . S.
WASILEWSKI (OTHER COUNTRIES ETHNOGRAPHY)
A. Bibliographies
B.
ARMON Witold: Bibliografia historii etnografii polskiej. W: Historia etnografii polskiej.
Wrocław 1973, pp. 270-295.
Bibliografia historii kultury ludowej Karpat, pod red. Mieczysława Gładysza, cz. 1:
Materiały do bibliografii polskiej. Warszawa 1960.
Bibliografia historii Polski. T. 1 cz. 1: Warszawa 1965. (Nauki pomocnicze historii,
bibliografia prac etnograficznych, pp. 318-345, poz. 5439-5864).
Bibliographie sur la Pologne: Pays — Histoire — Civilisation. Warszawa 1964.
BITTNER-SZEWCZYKOWA Halina: Materiały do bibliografii etnografii polskiej za 19451954 r. Suplement do 43 t. Ludu. Wrocław 1958.
GAWIN Bolesław: Bibliografia etnografii polskiej za 1955 r. Lud t. 44:1957 (print), 1959,
pp. 541-598.
GAWIN Bolesław: Bibliografia etnografii polskiej za lata 1956-1958. Lud T. 46:1960, pp.
541-667.
GAWIN Bolesław: Bibliografia etnografii polskiej za lata 1959-1960 Lud T. 51:1967, pp.
259-350.
GŁADYSZ Mieczysław: Bibliografia etnografii Śląska w zarysie. Katowice 1966.
SZULC Marian: Fotografia na usługach etnografii. Materiały do bibliografii fotografii
polskiej (1840-1953). Wrocław 1955.
ZAMBRZYCKA-KUNACHOWICZ Anna: Przegląd bibliografii etnograficznych.
Warszawa 1958.
B. Magazines and periodicals
Archiwum Etnograficzne, wyd. PTL, Lublin—Łódź—Poznań—Wrocław Nr 1-32: 19511972. Biblioteka „Etnografii Polskiej", IHKM PAN, dz. IV, Nr 1-30: 1956-1974. Biblioteka
Popularnonaukowa, wyd. PTL. T. 1-8: Wrocław 1958-1873. Biuletyn Informacyjny,
Stowarzyszenie Twórców Ludowych. Nr 1-4/5: Lublin 1971-1973.
Biuletyn Informacyjny Muzeum Budownictwa Ludowego w Sanoku. T. 1-2: 1964- 1965;
since 1966: Materiały Muzeum Budownictwa Ludowego w Sanoku. T. 3-15: 1966-1972.
Etnografia Polska, IHKM PAN, dz. IV. T. 1-18: Wrocław 1958-1974. Kwartalnik Historii
Kultury Materialnej, IHKM PAN. R. 1-23: Warszawa 1953-1974.
Literatura Ludowa, PTL. R. 1-13: Warszawa—Wrocław 1957-1974.
Lud, PTL. T. 1-68, Lwów—Lublin—Poznań—Wrocław 1895-1974.
Łódzkie Studia Etnograficzne, PTL. T. 1-15, Łódź 1959-1974.
Polska Sztuka Ludowa, Instytut Sztuki PAN. R. 1-28, Warszawa 1947-1974.
Prace Etnograficzne. Zeszyty Naukowe UJ. T. 1-3. Kraków 1963-1967.
51
Prace Etnologiczne, PTL. T. 1-9. Lublin—Kraków—Poznań—Wrocław 19471972.
Prace i Materiały Etnograficzne (continuation: Prace Etnograficzne Tow. Ludoznaw. we
Lwowie), PTL. T. 6-27. Lublin—Kraków—Łódź—Wrocław 1947-1972. Prace i Materiały
Muzeum Archeologicznego i Etnograficznego w Łodzi. Seria etnograficzna. T. 1-16, Łódź
1957-1972.
Rocznik Muzeum Etnograficznego w Krakowie. T. 1-5: 1966-1974. Roczniki Etnografii
Śląskiej, Muzeum Etnograficzne, oddział Muzeum Narodowego we Wrocławiu. T. 1-4:
1961-1972.
Studia i materiały lubelskie. Etnografia, Muzeum w Lublinie. T. 1-2: 1962- 1967.
Zeszyty Państwowego Muzeum Etnograficznego w Warszawie. T. 1-12/13: 1960- 1971/72.
C. Polish ethnography, history, biographies, theoretical and methodological issues,
strategies of field research, museology
ADAMUS Krystyna: Monografie wsi w Polsce. Przegląd problematyki badawczej. Etnogr.
pol. T. 2:1959, pp. 157-202.
ASSORODOBRAJ Nina: Życie i dzieło Stefana Czarnowskiego. W: Czarnowski S., Dzieła
t. 5, Warszawa 1956, pp. 105-156.
Badania nad sztuką ludową w dwudziestoleciu 1944-1964. Pol. Szt. Lud. R. 18: 1964 nr 4,
pp. 189-230.
BIAŁY Zbigniew, ŻARNECKA-BIAŁY Ewa: Z zagadnień weryfikacji w terenowych
badaniach etnograficznych. Prace Etnograficzne. Zeszyty Naukowe UJ. t. 1: 1963, pp. 9-82.
BIEŃKOWSKI Wiesław: Poprzednicy Oskara Kolberga na polu badań ludoznawczych w
Polsce. Podłoże społeczne początków etnografii polskiej. Wrocław 1956.
BRZOSTOWSKI Stanisław, ORYSIAK Stanisław: Muzea w Polsce. Przewodnik
informator, wyd. 2 popr. i uzupeł. Warszawa 1971.
BULANDA Edward: Pamięci wybitnego etnologa polskiego prof, dr Stanisława
Poniatowskiego (1884-1945). Lud T. 36: 1939-1945 1946, pp. 19-32.
BURSZTA Józef: Dwa modele etnograficznej monografii wsi. Lud T. 53: 1969 1970, pp.
147-163.
BURSZTA Józef: Etnografia a współczesność. Nieco refleksji metodologicznych w
związku z badaniami na ziemiach zachodnich. Etnogr. pol. T. 9: 1965, pp. 41-60.
BURSZTA Józef: Etnografia w ćwierćwieczu Polski Ludowej. Organizacja — Tendencje
— Kierunki badań. Lud T. 53: 1969 1970, pp. 31-58.
DOBROWOLSKI Kazimierz: Badania historyczno-terenowe. Zagadnienie rekonstrukcji
procesów historycznych na podstawie materiałów terenowych. Sprawozd. PAU. T. 53: 1952
1954 pp. 424-429.
DOBROWOLSKI Kazimierz: Studia nad życiem społecznym i kulturą. Wrocław 1966.
DOBROWOLSKI Kazimierz: Studia z pogranicza historii i socjologii. Kraków 1967.
DOBROWOLSKI Kazimierz, KUTRZEBA-POJNAROWA Anna: Sylwetka naukowa Jana
Stanisława Bystronia (1892-1964). Etnogr. pol. T. 10: 1966, pp. 15-28.
DYNOWSKI Witold: Etnografia w aktualnych tendencjach rozwojowych nauk
społecznych. Etnogr. pol. T. 11: 1967, pp. 17-28.
52
DYNOWSKI Witold: Zagadnienie historii kultury materialnej w dzisiejszej etnografii
polskiej i działalność Działu IV Instytutu Historii Kultury Materialnej. Kwart. Hist. Kult.
Mat. R. 4: 1956, pp. 343-360.
Dzieje folklorystyki polskiej 1800-1863. Epoka przedkolbergowska. Ed. Helena Kapełuś,
Julian Krzyżanowski. Wrocław 1970.
Folklorystyka XX-lecia PRL. Liter. Lud R. 8: 1964 nr 4-6, s. 3-22, R. 9: 1965 nr 1, pp. 3-59.
FRANKOWSKA Maria: Etnografia powszechna i jej miejsce w nauce polskiej po drugiej
wojnie światowej. Lud T. 53: 1969 1970, s. 103-137.
GAJEK Józef: Jan Czekanowski (1882-1965) jako etnograf. Prz. antropol. T. 21: 1955, pp.
1010-1030.
GAJEK Józef: Śp. Profesor Dr Adam Fischer (1889-1943). Lud T. 36: 1939-1945 1946,
pp. 6-18.
GAJEK Józef: Studia nad etnograficzną regionalizacją Polski. Lud T. 47: 1961 1962, pp.
165-209.
GAJEK Józef: Znaczenie „Polskiego Atlasu Etnograficznego" dla etnografii Polski. Etnogr.
pol. T. 15: 1971 z. 2, pp. 17-36.
GAJKOWA Olga: Historia Polskiego Towarzystwa Ludoznawczego. Jego powstanie,
rozwój i znaczenie w ciągu siedemdziesięciolecia. Lud T. 51: 1966 1967, pp. 7-54.
GAJKOWA Olga: Jan Karłowicz i Ludwik Krzywicki jako reprezentanci dwu nurtów w
etnologii polskiej. Wrocław 1959.
GAŁĘSKI Bogusław: Socjologia wsi. Pojęcia podstawowe. Warszawa 1966.
GŁADYSZ Mieczysław: Działalność naukowa etnograficznych placówek muzealnych w
okresie powojennym. Etnogr. pol. T. 2: 1958, pp. 109-136.
GŁADYSZ Mieczysław: Kazimierz Moszyński (5 I I I 1887 — 30 III 1959). Etnogr. pol. T.
3: 1960, pp. 14-27, Moszyńska Barbara: Bibliografia prac Kazimierza Moszyńskiego, pp.
31-40.
GŁADYSZ Mieczysław: Zarys planu działalności i organizacji Międzynarodowej Komisji
do Badania kultury ludowej w Karpatach. Etnogr. pol. T. 4: 1962, pp. 15-40.
GÓRSKI Ryszard: Oskar Kolberg. Zarys życia i działalności. Warszawa 1970.
GROSS Feliks: Bronisław Malinowski (1884-1942). Lud T. 38:1947 1948 pp. 277-288.
HERN AS Czesław: W kalinowym lesie. U źródeł folklorystyki polskiej. T. 1-2. Warszawa)
1985.
Historia etnografii polskiej. Praca zbiór, pod red. Małgorzaty Terleckiej. Warszawa 1973.
KLIMASZEWSKA Jadwiga: Katedra etnografii Słowian (1929-1964) na tle rozwoju
etnografii w Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim w latach 1811-1925. Zeszyty Naukowe UJ. T.
139. Prace Historyczne z. 15, pp. 303-339.
KLIMASZEWSKA Jadwiga: Vědecká činnost Kazimierza Moszyńskeho. Slovenský
Národopis Т. 5: 1957, pp. 245-260.
KLIMASZEWSKA Jadwiga, Kutrzeba - Pojnarowa Anna: Działalność uniwersyteckich
katedr etnografii w Polsce w latach 1945-1956. Etnogr. pol. T. 2: 1959, pp. 59-105.
KLOSKA Gerhard: Etnologiczna teoria moralności Edwarda Westermarcka. Etnogr. pol. T.
16: 1972 z. 1, pp. 79-113.
KOPCZYŃSKA-JAWORSKA Bronisława: Metodyka etnograficznych badań terenowych.
Warszawa 1971.
53
KOPCZYŃSKA-JAWORSKA Bronisława: Problematyka etnograficznych badań nad
współczesnością. Łódzkie Studia Etnogr. T. 10: 1968, pp. 23-32. T
KRYCZKA Piotr, SZWENGRUB LiU Maria, TUROWSKI Jan: Socjologia wsi i miasta w
Polsce. Warszawa 1971.
KRZYŻANOWSKI Julian: Jan Stanisław Bystroń i jego dorobek folklorystyczny. Liter.
Lud. R. 8: 1964 nr 3, pp. 4-6.
KUTRZEBA-POJNAROWA Anna: Jan Stanisław Bystroń jako historyk i teoretyk kultury
ludowej. Pol. Szt. Lud. R. 19: 1965, pp. 71-78.
KUTRZEBA-POJNAROWA Anna: Jan Stanisław Bystroń jako historyk i teoretyk kultury
materialnej Polski i Słowiańszczyzny. Kwart. Hist. Kult. Mat. R. 8: 1960, pp. 171-182.
KUTRZEBA-POJNAROWA Anna: Kultura materialna wsi polskiej w pracach
etnograficznych dwudziestopięciolecia Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej. Lud T. 53: 1969
1970, pp. 61-85, Drozd Mirosława: Bibliografia ważniejszych prac dotyczących kultury
materialnej wsi polskiej w okresie 1945-1968, pp. 87-102.
KUTRZEBA-POJNAROWA Anna: Pozycja Józefa Obrębskiego w etnografii polskiej.
Etnogr. pol. T. 16: 1972 z. 1, pp. 215-219.
KUTRZEBA-POJNAROWA Anna: Wspomnienie o profesorze Eugeniuszu Frankowskim
21 X I 1884 — 8 I I 1962. Etnogr. pol. T. 7: 1963, pp. 425-439.
KUTRZEBA-POJNAROWA Anna: Współpraca nauk społecznych w studiach nad
przeszłością i teraźniejszością kultury wsi polskiej. Etnogr. pol. T. 11: 1967, pp. 30-42.
KUTRZEBA-POJNAROWA Anna: Z zagadnień metodyki polskich prac etnograficznych:
czas i przestrzeń w badaniach kultury ludowej. Etnogr. pol. T. 9: 1965, pp. 25-40.
KUTRZEBIANKA Anna: Rozwój badań etnograficznych ziemi krakowskiej. Lud T. 39:
1948-1951, pp. 569-604.
KUTRZEBIANKA Anna: Rozwój etnografii i etnologii w Polsce. Kraków 1948.
KWAŚNIEWICZ Władysław: Metoda integralna Kazimierza Dobrowolskiego. Etnogr. pol.
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LANGE Roderyk: Historia badań nad tańcem ludowym w Polsce. Lud T. 51: 1967 1968,
pp. 415-449.
LORENTZ Stanisław: Przewodnik po muzeach i zbiorach w Polsce. Wydanie 2-gie
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10: 1966, s. 61-73.
MAŁKOWSKA Krystyna: Uwagi o modelu. Etnogr. pol. T. 13: 1969, pp. 11-22.
MAŚLANKA Julian: Zorian Dołęga-Chodakowski — jego miejsce w kulturze polskiej i
wpływ na polskie piśmiennictwo romantyczne. Wrocław 1965.
MOSZYŃSKI Kazimierz: Ewolucjonizm krytyczny na tle innych kierunków etnologii. Lud
T. 38: 1947 1948, pp. 3-27.
NASZ Adolf: Etnograficzne aspekty badań archeologicznych w Polsce. Archeologia T. 3:
1949 1951, pp. 27-44.
NASZ Adolf: Wpływ śląsko-łużyckiej rubieży leśnej na dynamikę procesów
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PAPROCKA Wanda: Badania etnograficzne na Mazowszu w latach 1945-1967. Rocz. Maz.
Т. 3: 1970, pp. 303-331.
54
PIETRASZEK Edward: Problematyka społeczna w publikacjach etnograficznych
minionego ćwierćwiecza (1945-1969). Studia Socjolog, nr 1 (36) 1970, pp. 65-77.
PONIATOWSKI Stanisław: Fakty etnologiczne i metody ich badań. Lud T. 37: 1946, pp.
32-68.
POKROPEK Marian: Adam Chętnik (1885-1967) i jego zasługi dla regionu kurpiowskiego.
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Studia z zakresu socjologii, etnografii i historii ofiarowane Kazimierzowi Dobrowolskiemu.
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1971.
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TOPOLSKI Jerzy: Problemy metodologiczne monograficznych badań wsi (o potrzebie
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TURKOWSKI Lucjan: Prof. Dr Cezaria Baudouin de Courtenay-Ehrenkreutz- Jędrzejewiczowa (1885-1967). Lud T. 52: 1968 1969, pp. 357-360.
WALIGÓRSKI Andrzej: Antropologiczna koncepcja człowieka w rozwoju historycznym.
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WALIGÓRSKI Andrzej: Implikacje teoretyczne etnograficznych badań terenowych.
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WOŹNIAK Andrzej: Źródła zainteresowań ludoznawczych w ideologii polskiego
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WRÓBLEWSKI Tadeusz: Zarys historii badań nad duchową kulturą ludową w Polsce. Lud
T. 51: 1967 cz. 2 1968, pp. 453-482.
ZADROŻYNSKA-BARĄCZ Anna: Fenomenologiczna koncepcja historii i kultury.
Zastosowanie w polskich badaniach etnograficznych. Etnogr. pol. T. 12: 1968, pp. 15-27.
ZAWISTOWICZ-ADAMSKA Kazimiera: Dawność i teraźniejszość w badaniach
etnograficznych. Lud T. 43: 1956 1958, pp. 169-182.
ZAWISTOWICZ-ADAMSKA Kazimiera: Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze. Dorobek,
działalność, perspektywy rozwoju. Nauka Polska 1973 nr 1, pp 80-106.
ZAWISTOWICZ-ADAMSKA Kazimiera: Pomoc wzajemna i współdziałanie w kulturach
ludowych. Prace i Mater. Etnogr. T. 8-9: 1950-1951, pp. 1-154.
ZAWISTOWICZ-ADAMSKA Kazimiera: Społeczność wiejska. Doświadczenia i
rozważania z badań terenowych w Zaborowie. Łódź 1948. Wyd. 2, Warszawa 1958.
55
ZAWISTOWICZ-ADAMSKA Kazimiera: Wincenty Pol (1807-1872) — badacz kultury
ludowej. Warszawa 1966.
Zmiany kultury chłopskiej. Problematyka i metody prac etnograficznych. Wrocław 1973.
ZNAMIEROWSKA-PRÜFFEROWA Maria: Polskie muzealnictwo etnograficzne w
okresie 25-lecia PRL. Lud T. 53: 1969 1970, pp. 419-450.
D. General studies, textbooks, dictionaries, ethnographic atlases
Atlas Polskich strojów ludowych. Z. 1-31. Lublin, Poznań, Wrocław 1949-1972.
BURSZTA Józef: Kultura ludowa — kultura narodowa. Szkice i rozprawy. War-seaiwa
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BYSTROŃ Jan Stanisław: Etnografia Polski. Warszawa 1947.
BYSTROŃ ian Stanisław: Kultura ludowa. Wyd. 2, Warszawa 1947.
BYSTROŃ Jan Stanisław, D y n o w s k i Witold: Kultura ludowa i ludoznawstwo w
Polsce. Warszawa 1948.
CHAŁASIŃSKI Józef (współred.): Młode pokolenie wsi Polski Ludowej. Warszawa 19641970.
CZARNOWSKI Stefan: Dzieła. W oprać. Niny Assorodobraj i Stanisława Ossowskiego. T.
1-5. Warszawa 1956.
CZEKANOWSKI Jan: Wstęp do historii Słowian. Wyd. 2 na nowo oprać. Poznań 1957.
GAJEK Józef: Polski Atlas Etnograficzny. Lublin 1947.
Historia chłopów polskich. Pod red. Stefana Inglota. T. 1-2. Warszawa 1970-1972.
KRZYWICKI Ludwik: Dzieła. T. 1-6. Warszawa 1957-1962.
MALINOWSKI Bronisław: Szkice z teorii kultury. Warszawa 1958. MOSZYÑSKI
Kazimierz: Człowiek. Wstęp do etnografii powszechnej i etnologii. Wrocław 1958.
MOSZYŃSKI Kazimierz: Kultura ludowa Słowian. T. 1-2 z. 1-2. Wyd. 2. Warszawa 19671968.
MOSZYŃSKI Kazimierz: O sposobach badania kultury materialnej Prasłowian. Wrocław
1962.
MOSZYŃSKI Kazimierz: Pierwotny zasięg języka prasłowiańskiego. Wrocław 1957.
Poland at the 8th International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences.
Wrocław 1968.
Poland at the 9th International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences.
Wrocław 1973.
La Pologne au Vile Congres International des Sciences Anthropologiques et Ethnologiques.
Wrocław 1964.
Polski Atlas Etnograficzny. Z. 1-4. Wrocław 1964-1972.
Słownik folkloru polskiego. Ed. Juliana Krzyżanowskiego. Warszawa 1965. Słownik
starożytności słowiańskich. Encyklopedyczny zarys kultury Słowian od czasów
najdawniejszych pod red. Władysława Kowalenki, Gerarda Labudy i Tadeusza LehrSpławińskiego. T. 1-4. Wrocław 1961-1973.
SOKOLEWICZ Zofia: Wstęp do etnologii. Warszawa 1974.
56
Studia i materiały do historii wsi polskiej X I X i X X w. Zajęcia pozarolnicze,
współdziałanie gospodarcze. Praca zbiorowa pod red. Kazimiery Zawistowicz - Adamskiej.
Wrocław 1958.
TYMIENIECKI Kazimierz: Historia chłopów polskich. T. 1-3. Warszawa 1965- 1969.
WRÓBLEWSKI Tadeusz: Wspólne elementy w ludowych kulturach środkowej Europy.
Poznań 1964.
WRÓBLEWSKI Tadeusz: Wstęp do etnografii. Cz. 1: Etnografia, lud, kultura. Poznań
1969.
Zarys historii gospodarstwa wiejskiego w Polsce. IHKM PAN, IH PAN ed. Janina
Leskiewiczowa. T. 1-3. Warszawa 1964-1970.
ZNANIECKI Florian: Nauki o kulturze. Warszawa 1971.
E. Regional Studies. Monographs of villages and regions
BARANOWSKI Bohdan: Życie codzienne wsi między Wartą a Pilicą w X IX wieku.
Warszawa 1969.
BIERNACKA Maria: Potakówka. Wieś powiatu jasielskiego 1890-1960. Z badań nad
współdziałaniem. Warszawa 1962.
CHĘTNIK Adam. Życie puszczańskie Kurpiów. Warszawa 1971.
F L I Z A K Sebastian: Materiały etnograficzne i historyczne z terenu Zagórzan. Poznań
1952.
GAJEK Józef: Zarys etnograficzny zachodniej części Podola. Lublin 1947.
KOLBERG Oskar: Dzieła wszystkie. Reedycja T. 1-36. Edycja T. 1-21. Wrocław—Poznań
1961-1973.
KUKIER Ryszard: Kaszubi bytowscy. Zarys monografii etnograficznej. Gdynia 1968.
Kultura ludowa Wielkopolski. Praca zbiorowa pod red. Józefa Burszty. T. 1-3. Poznań
1960-1967.
Kurpie — Puszcza Zielona. Praca zbiorowa pod red. Anny Kutrzeba-Pojnarowej. T. 1-3.
Wrocław 1962-1965.
KUTRZEBA-POJNAROWA Anna: Tradycyjna społeczność wiejska w procesie przemian
współczesnych. Studium wsi Mników powiatu krakowskiego. Wrocław 1968.
LIGĘZA Józef: Śląska kultura ludowa. Katowice—Wrocław 1948. Lubelskie. Praca
zbiorowa pod red. Olgi Gajkowej. Wrocław 1961. ŁĘGA Władysław: Okolice Świecia.
Materiały etnograficzne. Gdańsk 1960. ŁĘGA Władysław: Ziemia chełmińska. Wrocław
1961.
Materiały etnograficzne z powiatu limanowskiego, z. 1-2, Wrocław 1967-1971.
MISIŃSKA Maria: Podhale dawne i współczesne. Łódź 1970.
Monografia powiatu myślenickiego T. 2: Kultura ludowa. Praca zbiorowa pod red. Romana
Reinfussa. Kraków 1970.
Nad rzeką Ropą. Zarys kultury ludowej powiatu gorlickiego. Praca zbiorowa pod red.
Romana Reinfussa. Kraków 1965.
Olsztyńskie. Praca zbiorowa pod red. Józefa Gajka. Wrocław 1960. Pasterstwo Tatr
Polskich i Podhala. Praca zbiorowa pod red. Włodzimierza Antoniewicza. T. 1-8. Wrocław
1960-1968.
57
PAWŁOWSKA Jadwiga: Dolnośląska wieś Pracze w powiecie milickim. T. 1-2. Wrocław
1966-1968.
POL Wincenty: Prace z etnografii północnych stoków Karpat. Wrocław 1966.
REINFUSS Roman: Łemkowie jako grupa etnograficzna. Prace i Mater, etnograf, t. 7:
1948, s. '77-210.
Stare i Nowe Siołkowice. Praca zbiorowa pod red. Mieczysława Gładysza. T. 1 cz. 1-2, T.
2. Wrocław 1965-1966.
Stelmachowska Bożena: Słowińcy i ich kultura. Opracował Tadeusz Wróblewski. Poznań—
Słupsk 1963.
Śląsk. Praca zbiorowa pod red. Stanisława Bąka. Wrocław 1963.
WIERZBICKI Z. Т.: Żmiąca w pół wieku później. Wrocław 1963. Wieś dolnośląska. Praca
zbiór, pod red. Adolfa Nasza. Prace i Materiały Etnograficzne, t. 20. Wrocław 1970.
Wieś śląska w 1840 r. Relacje z podróży naukowej J . J . Sieżniewskiego po Śląsku. Oprać.
Eugenia Kucharska, Adolf Nasz, Stanisław Rospond. Wrocław 1973. Żywirska Maria:
Puszcza Biała, jej dzieje i kultura. Warszawa 1973.
F. Thematic studies on ethnography of Poland
BARANOWSKI Bohdan: Początki i rozpowszechnienie uprawy ziemniaków na ziemiach
środkowej Polski. Łódź 1960.
BAZIELICH Barbara: Barwne wyszycia na płótnie u Górali Karpackich. Bytom 1970.
BIAŁY Zbigniew: Ekonomiczna i kulturowa rola targów i jarmarków w Małopolsce
południowej w X I X i X X w. Etnogr. pol. T. 12: 1968, pp. 29-66. BIELAWSKI Ludwik:
Rytmika polskich pieśni ludowych. Kraków 1970. BIERNACKA Maria: Wsie
drobnoszlacheckie na Mazowszu i Podlasiu. Tradycje historyczne a współczesne przemiany.
Wrocław 1966.
BOHDANOWICZ Janusz: Spichrze na tle innych pomieszczeń do przechowywania ziarna
w gospodarstwach chłopskich w Polsce na przełomie X I X / X X w. (1860- 1960). Lud T.
47:1961, pp. 283-382.
BURSZTA Józef: Od osady słowiańskiej do wsi współczesnej. O tworzeniu się krajobrazu
osadniczego ziem polskich i rozplanowali wsi. Wrocław 1958.
CHYBIŃSKI Adolf: O polskiej muzyce ludowej. Wybór- prac etnograficznych. Kraków
1961.
•CZAJKOWSKI Jerzy: Wiejskie budownictwo mieszkalne w Beskidzie Niskim i na
przyległym Pogórzu. W: Rocznik Muzeów Województwa Rzeszowskiego. T. 2: 1969.
CZEKANOWSKA Anna: Etnografia muzyczna. Metodologia i metodyka. Warszawa 1971.
CZEKANOWSKA Anna: Ludowe melodie wąskiego zakresu w krajach słowiańskich.
Warszawa 1972.
CZEKANOWSKA Anna: Pieśni biłgorajskie. Przyczynek do interpretacji polskiego
pogranicza południowo-wschodniego. Wrocław 1961.
DĄBROWSKA Grażyna: Tańce Kurpiów Puszczy Zielonej. Warszawa 1967. DEKOWSKI
Jan Piotr: Z badań nad pożywieniem ludu łowickiego (1880-1939). Pr. i Mat. Muz.
Archeolog, i Etnogr. w Łodzi. Seria Etnogr. T. 12: 1968.
DOBROWOLSKA Danuta: Przeobrażenia społeczne wsi podmiejskiej. Wrocław 1968.
58
DOBROWOLSKI Kazimierz: Bemerkungen zu Forschungsmethoden über die Hirtenkultur
in den Karpaten. W: Viehwirtschaft und Hirtenkultur, Ethnographis-che Studien. Budapeszt
1969, pp. 199-219.
DOBROWOLSKI Kazimierz: Die Haupttypen der Hirtenwanderungen in den Nordkarpaten vom 14. bis 20. Jahrhundert. W: Viehzucht und Hirtenleben in Ostmittel-europa.
Ethnographische Studien. Red. László Foldes. Budapeszt 1961, pp. 113-146.
DOBROWOLSKI Kazimierz: Studia nad kulturą pasterską w Karpatach północnych.
Typologia wędrówek pasterskich od XIV do X X wieku. Wierchy R. 29: 1960 1961, pp. 751.
DUBIEL Ludwik: Wnętrze mieszkalne domu chłopskiego na Górnym Śląsku w X IX i X X
wieku. Bytom 1967.
DWORAKOWSKI Stanisław: Kultura społeczna ludu wiejskiego na Mazowszu nad
Narwią. Cz. 1: Zwyczaje doroczne i gospodarcze. Białystok 1964.
FRYCZOWA Maria: Tradycyjne budownictwo ludowe Kujaw. Toruń 1961.
FRYŚ-PIETRASZKOWA Ewa: Ośrodek garncarski w Łążku Ordynackim i jego wyroby na
tle ceramiki malowanej w Polsce. Wrocław 1973.
GAJ-PIOTROWSKI Wilhelm: Kultura społeczna ludu z okolic Rozwadowa. Wrocław
1967.
GARYGA Bolesław: Zasady klasyfikacji narzędzi uprawy ziemi. Zagadnienia systematyki
elementów kultury materialnej. Lud T. 46: 1960 1961, pp. 196-258.
GŁADYSZOWA Maria: Wiedza ludowa o gwiazdach. Wrocław 1960.
GRABOWSKI Józef: Dawna polska rzeźba ludowa. Warszawa 1968.
GRABOWSKI Józef: Ludowe malarstwo na szkle. Wrocław 1968.
GRABOWSKI Józef: Sztuka ludowa. Formy i regiony w Polsce. Warszawa 1967.
GRABOWSKI Józef: Wycinanka ludowa. Warszawa 1955.
JACKOWSKI Aleksander, JARNUSZKIEWICZOWA Jadwiga:. Sztuka ludu polskiego.
Warszawa 1967.
JASIEWICZ Zbigniew: Studia historyczno-etnograficzne nad kowalstwem wiejskim w
Wielkopolsce. Poznań 1963.
JOSTOWA Wanda: Pasterstwo na polskiej Orawie. Wrocław 1972. KLIMASZEWSKA
Jadwiga: Zakazy magiczne związane z rokiem obrzędowym w Polsce. Etnogr. pol. T. 4:
1961 pp. 109-140.
KLONOWSKI Franciszek: Drewniane budownictwo ludowe na Mazurach i Warmii.
Olsztyn 1965.
KOŁODZIEJSKA Barbara: Rzemiosło garncarskie w Zielonogórskiem. Warszawa—
Poznań 1973.
KOPCZYŃSKA-JAW ORSKA Bronisława: Tradycyjna gospodarka sezonowa w Karpatach
Polskich. Wrocław 1969.
KOTULA Franciszek: Po rzeszowskim Podgórzu błądząc. Reportaż historyczny. Kraków
1974.
KOTULA Franciszek: Hej leluja, czyli o wygasających starodawnych pieśniach
kolędniczych w Rzeszowskiem. Warszawa 1970.
KOTULA Franciszek: Z Sandomierskiej Puszczy. Kraków 1962. KRZYŻANOWSKI
Julian: Mądrej głowie dać dwie słowie. T. 1-2. Warszawa 1958-1960.
59
KRZYŻANOWSKI Julian: Polska bajka ludowa w układzie systematycznym. Wyd. 2. T. 12. Warszawa 1962-1963.
KUCHARSKA Jadwiga: Przemiany struktury społeczno-zawodowej wsi kaszubskich w XX
w. Wrocław 1971.
KUCHARSKA Jadwiga: Tradycyjna organizacja rybołówstwa zespołowego na wybrzeżu
kaszubskim. Wrocław 1968.
KWAŚNIEWICZ Krystyna: Z badań nad zwyczajami dorocznymi w społeczności wiejskiej.
Etnogr. pol. T. 9: 1965, pp. 62-100.
KWAŚNIEWICZ Władysław: Wiejska społeczność rzemieślnicza w procesie przemian.
Studium socjologiczne wsi Świątniki Górne pow. krakowskiego. (1850-1960). Wrocław
1970.
KWAŚNIEWSKI Krzysztof: Paleniska i piece w polskim budownictwie ludowym. Studium
na podstawie materiałów etnograficznych z drugiej połowy XIX oraz XX wieku. Wrocław
1963.
LIGĘZA Józef: Śladami tradycji. Studia nad folklorem górniczym. Bytom 1968. MALICKI
Longin: Kociewska sztuka ludowa. Gdańsk 1973.
MARKOWSKA Danuta: Rodzina wiejska na Podlasiu 1864-1964. Wrocław 1970.
MARKOWSKA Danuta: Rodzina w środowisku wiejskim. Studium wsi podkrakowskiej.
Wrocław 1964.
Między dawnymi a nowymi laty. Studia folklorystyczne, ed. Ryszard Górski, Julian
Krzyżanowski. Wrocław 1970.
MISIÑSKA Maria: Tradycyjny spław drewna w Polsce (druga połowa X I X w. i wiek
XX). Łódź 1962.
NIZIÑSKA Irena: Budownictwo wiejskie we wsi Ciche pow. Nowy Targ. Wrocław 1966.
Nowa księga przysłów i wyrażeń przysłowiowych polskich w oparciu o dzieło Samuela
Adalberga opracował zespół pod kierunkiem Juliana Krzyżanowskiego. Т. 1-3: Warszawa
1969-1972.
OLESIEJUK Feliks: Obrzędy weselne w Lubelskiem. Materiały etnograficzne do badań nad
obrzędowością weselną. Wrocław 1971.
OLĘDZKI Jacek: Kultura artystyczna ludności kurpiowskiej. Wrocław 1971.
OZGOWICZ Edward: Śląska rzeźba ludowa w drewnie. Wrocław 1973.
PAPROCKA Wanda: Przemysł domowy, rzemiosło i chałupnictwo wsi kurpiowskiej
Puszczy Zielonej. Wrocław 1967.
PIETRASZEK Edward: Wiejscy robotnicy kopalni hut. Wrocław 1966.
PIETRASZEK Edward: Wieś robotnicza. Wrocław 1969.
PIWOCKI Ksawery: O historycznej genezie polskiej sztuki ludowej. Wrocław 1953.
PIWOCKI Ksawery: Sztuka żywa. Szkice z teorii i metodyki historii sztuki. Wrocław 1970.
POKROPEK Marian: Materiały do historii budownictwa ludowego terenu Kurpiowskiej
Puszczy Zielonej. Warszawa 1962.
Pożywienie ludności wiejskiej. Praca zbiorowa pod red. Anny Kowalskiej-Lewickiej.
Kraków 1973.
REINFUSS Roman: Garncarstwo Ludowe. Warszawa 1955.
REINFUSS Roman: Ludowe skrzynie malowane. Warszawa 1954.
REINFUSS Roman: Malarstwo ludowe. Kraków 1982.
60
REINFUSS Roman, ŚWIDERSKI Jan: Sztuka ludowa w Polsce. Kraków 1960.
SEWERYN Tadeusz: Kapliczki i krzyże przydrożne w Polsce. Warszawa 1962.
SEWERYN Tadeusz: Polskie zabawki ludowe. Warszawa 1960.
SEWERYN Tadeusz: Staropolska grafika ludowa. Warszawa 1956.
SIMONIDES Dorota: Współczesna śląska proza ludowa. Opole 1969.
SIUDOWSKA-MYZYKOWA Teresa: Materiały do bartnictwa w północno-wschodniej
Europie ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem obszaru Polski. Wrocław 1960.
SKARŻYŃSKI Tomasz: Stodoły w polskim budownictwie ludowym X I X i X X wieku.
Lud T. 47 : 1961, pp. 383-414.
SOBIESKA Jadwiga: Ze studiów nad folklorem muzycznym Wielkopolski. Kraków 1972.
STASZCZAK Zofia: Budownictwo chłopskie w województwie lubelskim (XIX i X X
wieku). Wrocław 1963.
SZROMBA Zofia: Proletariat rolny w społeczności wiejskiej. Opole 1969.
SZYFELBEJN-SOKOLEWICZ Zofia: Plon, obrzęd i widowisko. Wrocław 1967. SZYFER
Anna: Przemiany społeczno-kulturowe na wsi warmińskiej w latach 1945-1970. Olsztyn
1971.
SZYFER Anna: Tradycyjna astronomia i meteorologia ludowa na Mazurach, Warmii i
Kurpiach i jej współczesne przeobrażenia. Olsztyn 1969.
SZYFER Anna: Zwyczaje, obrzędy i wierzenia Mazurów i Warmiaków. Olsztyn 1968.
TRAWIŃSKA Maria: Zagroda chłopska w Polsce na przełomie X I X i X X w. Wrocław
1968.
UNGCHEUER Grażyna: Przemiany standardu kulturowego, Warszawa 1974.
WESOŁOWSKA Henryka: Młynarstwo wiejskie Opolszczyzny od XVHI do XX wieku.
Opole 1969.
WIERUSZEWSKA-ADAMCZYK Maria: Sankcje systemu kontroli społecznej wobec
rodziny wiejskiej. Łódź 1971.
WRÓBLEWSKI Tadeusz: Chłopski dom w Wielkopolsce, jego rozwój i przeobrażenia.
Poznań 1961.
W świecie pieśni i bajki. Studia folklorystyczne, ed. Ryszard Górski i Julian Krzyżanowski.
Wrocław 1969.
ZAMBRZYCKA-KUNACHOWICZ Anna: Odrobki jako forma współdziałania
gospodarczego na wsi. Opole 1967.
ZAMBRZYCKA-KUNACHOWICZ Anna: Rzemiosło we wsi robotniczo-rolniczej. Opole
1971.
ZAWISTOWICZ-ADAMSKA Kazimiera: Systemy krewniacze na Słowiańszczyźnie w ich
historyczno-społecznym uwarunkowaniu. Wrocław 1971.
Z badań nad budownictwem ludowym w Wielkopolsce (1954-1957). Warszawa 1959. Ze
studiów nad budownictwem wiejskim. Warszawa 1957.
ZNAMIEROWSKA-PRÜFFEROWA Maria: Rybackie narzędzia kolnę w Polsce i w
krajach sąsiednich. Toruń 1957.
Z zagadnień twórczości ludowej. Studia folklorystyczne, ed. Ryszard Górski, Julian
Krzyżanowski. Wrocław 1972.
G. Thematic studies on ethnography of other countries
61
a) titles on Africa:
CZEKANOWSKI Jan: W głąb lasów Aruwimi. Dziennik wyprawy do Afryki Środkowej.
Wrocław 1958.
CZEKANOWSKI Jan: Struktura etniczna Afryki a nawarstwienia najmłodsze, Lud T. 45:
1958/59, pp. 13-34.
DZIĘGIEL Leszek: Chłop wschodnioafrykański i jego sytuacja po uzyskaniu
niepodległości. Etnogr. pol. T. 18: 1974 z. 1, pp. 161-190.
DZIĘGIEL Leszek: Chłopstwo Afryki Wschodniej pod presją modernizacji. Etnogr. pol. T.
18: 1974 z. 2, pp. 87-128.
KOWALSKI Marek Arpad: Sztuka Afryki Wschodniej, Etnogr. pol. T. 15: 1971 z. 2, pp.
161-182.
MAKULSKI Krzysztof: Geneza Buszmenów na podstawie badań etnograficznych i
archeologicznych. Etnogr. pol. T. 7: 1963, pp. 192-294.
MAKULSKI Krzysztof: Historia badań etnograficznych Sahary na tle historii ogólnej
penetracji tej pustyni. Etnogr. pol. T. 9: 1965, pp. 347-387. MAKULSKI Krzysztof: Model
funkcjonowania gospodarki Kel-Ahaggar (1945-1954). Etnogr. pol. T. 14: 1970 z. 2, pp.
225-264.
MAKULSKI Kszysztof: Zmiany w życiu gospodarczym i społecznym Kel-Ahaggar (19541965). Etnogr. pol. T. 15: 1971 z. 2, pp. 137-160.
SZYFELBEJN-SOKOLEWICZ Zofia: Wstęp do etnografii Afryki, Warszawa 1968.
WALIGÓRSKI Andrzej: Społeczność afrykańska w procesie przemian, 1890-1949.
Studium wschodnioafrykańskiego plemienia Luo. Warszawa 1969.
WALIGÓRSKI Andrzej, DZIĘGIEL Leszek: Roczny cykl produkcyjny chłopskiej zagrody
zachodniokenijskich Luo. Lud T. 58: 1974, pp. 41-72.
b) titles on America:
BURCHARD Przemysław: Indianie z peryferii. Warszawa 1974.
FRANKOWSKA Maria: Postawy gospodarki wiejskiej w Peru w ostatnim okresie
panowania Inków i pierwszym stuleciu po konkwiście. Wiek XVI i pierwsza połowa XVII
w. Poznań 1967.
KOWALSKA-LEWICKA Anna: Shipibo. Wrocław 1969.
MAŁKOWSKA Krystyna: Potlatch. Jego rola w kulturze Indian północno-zachodniego
wybrzeża Kanady. Etnogr. pol. T. 12: 1968, pp. 339-374.
POSERN-ZIELINSKA Mirosława: Peyotyzm. Religia Indian Ameryki Północnej. Wrocław
1972.
POSERN-ZIELIŃSKI Aleksander: Ruchy społeczne i religijne Indian Hiszpańskiej
Ameryki Południowej (XVI-XX w.). Wrocław 1974.
Patrz także: Etnogr. pol. T. 10: 1966; T. 14: 1970 z. 2; T. 15: 1971 z. 2; T. 16: 1972 z. 1, 2;
T. 17: 1973 z. 2; T. 18: 1974 z. 2. Autorzy: Brykczyński Piotr, Hrankowska Teresa,
Frankowska Maria, Kowalska-Lewicka Anna, Kula Marcin, Łepkowski Tadeusz,
Matuszewska-Kohutnicka Barbara, Kohutnicki Bohdan, Macierewicz Antoni, PosernZielińscy Mirosława i Aleksander, Skazińska Monika, Szemiński Jan, Tazbir Janusz,
Walendowska Barbara.
62
c) titles on Mongolia:
DYNOWSKI Witold: Współczesna Mongolia. Wrocław 1965.
KAŁUŻYŃSKI Stanisław: Terminologia pokrewieństwa u ludów mongolskich. Etnogr.
pol. T. 14: 1970 z. 1, s. 177-224.
MARKOWSKA Danuta, OLĘDZKI Jacek, SOKOLEWICZ Zofia: Niektóre zmiany w
tradycyjnym inwentarzu kulturowym pasterzy mongolskich. Etnogr. pol. T. 12: 1968, pp.
199-250.
Studia mongolskie (ed. Witold Dynowski). Wrocław 1969.
OLĘDZKI Jacek: Chün bajna, Etnogr. pol. T. 18: 1974 z. 2, pp. 81-114.
Z badań nad społeczeństwem i kulturą Mongolii. Studia mongolskie. Wrocław 1973.
d) studies in Bulgaria:
artykuły w Etnogr. pol. T. 15: 1971 z. 1. Autorzy: Biernacka Maria, Dynowski Witold,
Kopczyńska-Jaworska Bronisława, Paprocka Wanda, Pokropek Marian, oraz T. 16: 1972 z.
1. Autorzy: Nizińska Irena, Markowska Danuta.
e) other titles:
CHODZIDŁO Teofil: Karagasi-Tofałary. Monografia etnograficzna. Lud T. 46: 1960, pp.
9-134.
GODLEWSKI Aleksander Lech: Drogi Synów Słońca. Wrocław 1963. GODLEWSKI
Aleksander Lech: Czar dalekiej Nuku Hiva. Wrocław 1971. JASIEWICZ Zbigniew:
Uzbecy, Studium nad przeobrażeniami społeczno-kulturo-wymi w X I X i X X wieku.
Poznań 1969.
KOHUTNICKI Bohdan: Podobieństwo elementów kultu niedźwiedzia u ludów północnych
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Anna Kutrzeba-Pojnarowa
POLISH ETHNOGRAPHY DURING 30 YEARS OF EXISTENCE OF THE
PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF POLAND (CONNECTION WITH THE TRADITION AND
NEW DIRECTIONS OF RESEARCH)
Summary
I. Criteria of appreciation and traditions of Polish ethnography
Polish ethnography after the war has been currently appreciated from the standpoint of the
consistency of its development with the general trend of progress in social sciences as
responding to the actual expectations. Another approach is to look at the recent period as a
continuation of the Polish school of ethnography initiated at the break of centuries. It has
been distinguished by serious inquiries into the culture of its own country, with special
emphasis on peasant culture, responsiveness to political and social problems, empiricism
and team approach in field studies, and at the same time a critical but open and receptive
attitude to various methodological influences from abroad. The third approach is to evaluate
the present achievements as a starting point to a new synthesis promising a new historical
and theoretical perspective. Polish ethnography has entered the post-war period with its own
experience in empirical studies concerning the native, especially peasant culture, prepared to
originate its own original directions of research based on its historical inheritance, on
demands and on critically adopted foreign models.
II. New tasks of ethnography after the war
Polish ethnography has been historically modelled so as to be responsive to social demands
and thus it readily took up the most important tasks facing it after the war: 1) documentation
of the vanishing elements of the traditional peasant culture, above all of folk art (visual arts
and music); 2) documentation of cultural change processes. The state authorities have
initiated and supported a programme of elaboration of an inventory of folk art, eventually
resulting in rich collections of the Institute of Art of the Polish Academy of Sciences. The
new folk art sponsored by the state is also being recorded and subject to theoretical
investigations. Folk music, both of Polish and Slavic and other origin, is also studied. The
processes of cultural change of the Polish countryside after the war have been subject to
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investigations in all universities and other ethnographic research institutions. Since the
earliest post-war years a special concern has been devoted to migrations of culturally
diverse groups of population to the Western and Northern territories of the country, their
adaptation to the new environments and processes of cultural integration on a regional scale.
It was after the war that the still continued directions of ethnographical research have taken
shape, yielding documentation and historical as well as theoretical interpretation of the basic
processes taking place in various regions.
III. The shaping of the new Polish school of ethnography
Three professors (Dobrowolski, Moszyński, Frankowski) returned after the war to university
chairs of ethnography, resuming and modifying their former studies. They and other pre-war
trends provided a frame of reference for their followers and continuators, who became heads
of ethnography chairs in 6 universities. However, in the new historical, political and social
setting they searched for a new way and shaped their own attitudes both towards historical
materialism as an advanced scientific outlook and towards new trends in Western
scholarship. The post-war period can be divided into a number of shorter subperiods. The
first of them, until 1948, was the time of reconstruction of the destroyed institutions,
publishing houses and collections; the next one, until 1953, was the period of ideological
and organizational transformation. Since 1953 ethnography has been incorporated into the
Institute of the History of Material Culture of the Polish Academy of Sciences and still
remains a section of this institute; besides, folk art, music and verbal folklore (in historical
perspective) are studied in their institutes of the Academy (the Institute of Art and the
Institute of Literary Studies). In the most recent period three phases can be distinguished,
marked by emphasis on different issues: a) material culture in its historical development and
social and economic limitations, often with reference to selected regions or villages (or
sometimes to the whole country, in particular within the approach of the Polish
Ethnographical Atlas); b) contemporary cultural changes in the countryside in Poland and
elsewhere (including non-European countries), sometimes with special concern for the
social structure; c) systems of ideas and their essence and the general theory of culture.
During this period ethnography seems to have repeated once again its own old way: from
empirical studies to historical generalisations and theory, with strong emphasis on the
technical quality of ethnographers’ work, both in empirical and — especially most recently
— theoretical respects. However, the new trends in research, which were shaped after the
war and attained sustained maturity later on, were so varied and so dependent on foreign
trends as during the two decades between the world wars. They all find a common meeting
ground in publications of the Polish Society for Folklore and of the Institute of the History
of Material Culture of the Polish Academy of Sciences.
IV. Selected trends and topics of research
The most important achievements among the studies of the material culture of the Polish
countryside are mentioned, such as the Polish Ethnographical Atlas, case studies of selected
regions and villages, contributions to detailed subjects, as well as studies concerning the
rural family, changes in countryside communities, customs, ideas, knowledge etc. The
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former allow us to verify the views concerning the regional differentiation of traditional
culture (with reference to pre-industrial rural regions and to capitalist continuations); they
also provide materials for explanations of the studied processes in terms of external
conditions and of former degrees of development. They also allow us to reconstruct the
chronology of change and to connect it with the economic and social development of a
given region. The last mentioned studies lead towards inquiries into attitudes, models of
culture and their essential (old) contents. Generalisations of contemporary world trends in
anthropology are sometimes challenged in them. Contemporary ethnography comes back
from present and future-oriented studies towards theories constructed on the ground of
comparative studies of tribal and peasant cultures.
V. The present state of research; opportunities and objectives
The publishers, journals and research institutions dealing with ethnography are listed,
among them the numerous museums and ethnographical sections in provincial museums.
The lack of a synthesis of Polish ethnography is emphasized; the only attempts undertaken
so far are the work by Bystroń published in 1947 and the Polish contribution to the
publication Nations of the World sponsored by the Soviet Academy of Sciences, now being
elaborated by the Institute of the History of Material Culture of the Polish Academy of
Sciences. It is necessary to maintain the variety of approaches and directions of study in
ethnography that are connected with history and sociology, but retain their own identity
geared to cultural and social anthropology. There are legitimate attempts to make up for the
deficiencies of the early post-war years in the field of investigations into non-Polish
cultures, both European and other ones, like the survey of the Carpathian culture (in
cooperation with ethnographers from other socialist countries), studies of Bulgaria and
Mongolia, research on aboriginal communities in Africa and America (syncretic religions
and social movements). Polish university chairs of ethnography make also remarkably
commendable attempts to connect empirical work with theory and to verify theories in
investigations into the past and present. Ethnographic curricula should be connected more
closely with practical activity in such fields as art and folklore, which are now developing
with a new impetus.
Abstract translated by Anna Kutrzeba-Pojnarowa; Revised by Grzegorz Fik
This project is financed by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education as
part of the National Program for Development of Humanities, 2012-2014.