Gender

Gender
Zagadnienia
kulturowej tożsamości płci
Margaret Mead
1901-1979
"Life in the twentieth century
is like a parachute jump,
you have to get it right
the first time"
"Men have always been afraid
that women could get along without them.„
http://anthropology.usf.edu/women/mead/margaret_mead.htm
www.youtube.com/watch?v=cOa3ftAKnzo (Tales from the Jungle)
Główne prace Margaret Mead
• 1928 Coming of Age in Samoa: A Psychological Study
of Primitive Youth for Western Civilization.
New York: William Morrow
• 1935 Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies.
New York: William Morrow.
• 1972 Blackberry Winter: My Earlier years.
New York: William Morrow.
• 1978 Letters from the Field, 1925-1975.
New York: Harper & Rowe.
Margaret Mead,
a woman anthropologist
who was a strong proponent
of women's rights,
who shone a light
of understanding on human nature,
and a clear and forceful entity
who provided much knowledge
to the field of anthropology
and psychology.
Zdjęcie : Letters from the Field, 1977
http://www.psychologia.net.pl/artykul.php?level=108
Dominika Ochnik
• Płed biologiczna nie wpływa na poziom przedsiębiorczości,
a najbardziej przedsiębiorcze są osoby prezentujące repertuar
zachowań androgynicznych, czyli zarówno kobiecych jak i męskich.
• Przedsiębiorczośd, dążenie do celu, zaufanie do samego siebie,
kreatywnośd i elastycznośd, odpornośd na stres, podejmowanie ryzyka,
zdolności przywódcze.
• Czy tymi cechami częściej opisujemy mężczyzn czy kobiety?
• Czy słusznie?
abecadło
• In addition to age, gender is one of the universal
dimensions on which status differences are based.
Unlike sex, which is a biological concept, gender is
a social construct specifying the socially and culturally
prescribed roles that men and women are to follow.
• Women have always had lower status than men,
but the extent of the gap between the sexes varies
across cultures and time (some arguing that it is
inversely related to social evolution)
Wybrana literatura
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Gerda Lerner in The Creation of Patriarchy
Alan Wolfe "The Gender Question" (The New Republic)
B. Deutsch "The Male Privilege Checklist" (on-line)
Nijole Benokraitis & Joe Feagin "Overt/Subtle/Covert Sex
Discrimination: An Overview.„ (on-line)
• The State of the World Population 2000: Lives Together,
Worlds Apart--Men and Women in a Time of Change from the
United Nations Population Fund (on-line)
Linki internetowe
• The National Women's History Project's "Living the Legacy: The Women's
Rights Movement 1848-1998"
• The Virtual Library on Labour and Business History: a sizable listing
of women history journals
• National Museum of Women's History, with featured exhibit:
"Motherhood, social service and political reform: The political culture
and imagery of American suffrage"
• Women's History Workshop a collaborative effort of Massachusetts
middle school through college teachers
• Ken Middleton's American Women's History: A Research Guide
• Women in American History-from Encyclopedia Britannica
• National Center for Education Statistics, "Gender Differences in
Participation and Completion of Undergraduate Education and How They
Have Changed Over Time" (2005)
Gerda Lerner historyczka i feministka
Ur. 1920 - jest pionierem badao feministycznych,
w tym dotyczących Afro-Amerykanek.
1938 zdała maturę we Wiedniu, wyjechała z Europy,
uciekając przed faszyzmem
W USA uczyła się języka angielskiego, wyszła za mąż, wychowała dwoje dzieci.
W tym czasie angażowała się społecznie (w życiu lokalnej społeczności)
i kulturalnie (pisała książki, współpracowała przy realizacji musicali).
1963 - dyplom w New School for Social Research
1963 – zaczęła studia doktoranckie na Columbia University
doktorat napisała na temat Grimke Sisters
Gerda Lerner
gender is the "costume, a mask, a straitjacket
in which men and women
dance their unequal dance„
the subordination of women preceded all other
subordinations
to rid ourselves of all of those other "isms"--racism,
classism, ageism, etc.
it is sexism that must first be eradicated.
http://www.npg.si.edu/cexh/woot/
2002-2005 wystawa fotografii - Women of Our Time
Smithsonian, National Portrait Gallery
Women History
(Gerda Lerner)
„In the twenty-five years since I had left school in Vienna,
I had lived as an unskilled and later semi-skilled worker,
a housewife, a mother, a community activist.
In all these roles I met an active group of women who worked quietly
and without public recognition, usually without pay
and frequently without an awareness of the significance of the work
they were doing. Political organizations were influenced by their work,
yet no one would ever know of their existence
through the writings of historians or through the media.
Now [1963] in one of the best graduate schools in the country I was
presented with a history of the past in which women did not seem
to exist—except for a few rulers or some who created disturbances.”
http://www.acls.org/Publications/OP/Haskins/2005_GerdaLerner.pdf
Gerda Lerner – główne prace
The Grimke Sisters from South Carolina:
Rebels against Slavery 1967
Black Women in White America 1972
The Female Experience 1976
The Creation of Patriarchy 1986
Creation of Feminist Consciousness 1993
Grimke Sisters
• Sarah Grimké (1792-1873)
• Angelina Grimké (1805-1879)
• were born in the South of the United States
but from childhood believed that all people, including slaves
were created equal.
As a child Sarah tried to teach a slave to read and was severely punished.
As adults the Grimké sisters moved north and converted to Quakerism.
http://www2.edc.org/WomensEquity/women/grimke.htm
1972 – Gerda Lerner zakłada
(pierwszy w USA)
the M.A. Program in Women’s History
w Sarah Lawrence College
Westchester County, New York
1982 – Gerda Lerner pierwszą kobietą,
którą wybrano na przewodniczącą
the Organization of American Historians,
organizacji istniejącej od 50 lat.
Mary Beard
Główna praca: Woman as Force in History
Zwrócenie uwagi na fakt, że kobiety zawsze były obecne
w centrum wydarzeo historycznych,
ale na ogół nie dostrzegano ich obecności .
Pozycja kobiety była na przestrzeni historii taka sama:
subordinate,yet central; victimized, yet active.
Stwierdzenie, że „focusing on women as victims obscures
the true historyof women”
(tak Gerda Lerner podsumowuje stanowisko Mary Beard)
„Beard also insisted that the history of women
had to reflect the variations in the status of women
at any given time according to class.”
Kobiety były prześladowane, ale były też prześladowcami.
Alan Wolfe
"of all the ways that one group
has systematically mistreated another,
none is more deeply rooted
than the way men have subordinated women.
All other discriminations pale by contrast."
Women, who comprise half the world's population,
do two thirds of the world's work,
earn one tenth of the world's income
and own one hundredth of the world's property.
United Nations report 1980
Overall women wage earners in developed countries
receive an average of 77 cents on the dollar,
in developing countries 73 cents.
World Bank, Gender and Equality,
April 4, 2003
Current Population Survey of the US Census Bureau:
American women in 1999 earned approximately
77% of what men made,
the Department of Labor (2000):
female median weekly earnings
were 76% of the male median.
Feminizm
http://www.isnr.uksw.edu.pl/slownik/feminizm.htm
Przez feminizm (łac. femina - kobieta)
rozumie się ruchy społeczno-polityczne,
mające na celu równouprawnienie kobiet
we wszystkich dziedzinach aktywności ludzkiej.
Feminizm interpretuje rzeczywistośd społeczną w trzech
aspektach:
1. intelektualnym (status kobiety jest zdeterminowany wyłącznie
przez czynniki kulturotwórcze),
2. emocjonalno-oceniającym (niezadowolenie z istniejących
stosunków społecznych dyskryminujących kobietę oraz jej
pozycję i rolę w społeczeostwie)
3. oraz politycznym (działania na rzecz poprawy statusu kobiety).
Chronologia wydarzeń
• Postępowi myśliciele na przełomie XVIII i XIX wieku
(np. Condorcet), zaczynają mówid o równości kobiet
i mężczyzn
• Wzrost aktywności politycznej kobiet w czasie Rewolucji
Francuskiej
• Rewolucja Francuska nie dała jednak kobietom praw
wyborczych, wręcz zakazano im działalności politycznej
i zrzeszania się w kobiecych organizacjach
• Ruch sufrażystek w Anglii na przełomie XIX i XX wieku:
skuteczna walka o prawa wyborcze
• 1895 – National Association for Colored Women
• National Organization for Women (USA), lata 60. XX wieku
• 1848, the first Woman’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, NY,
po raz pierwszy zgłoszono publicznie żądanie równych praw
dla kobiet
• 1872, Susan B. Anthony poszła do wyborów w Rochester, NY,
oddała głos, została aresztowana i skazana na karę $100,
której nie zamierzała zapłacid
• 1875, the Supreme Court in Minor v. Happersett orzeczenie
sądowe: while women may be citizens, all citizens were not
necessarily voters, and states were not required to allow
women to vote.
Główne zdobycze
• 1839 – Married Women’s Property Act, Mississippi (chodziło o prawo
kobiety do dysponowania majątkiem wniesionym do małżeostwa),
później inne amerykaoskie stany uchwaliły podobne akty prawne
• 1920 – 19. Poprawka do Konstytucji USA, prawa wyborcze dla kobiet
• 1961 – Prezydent Kennedy powołuje Komisję ds. Statusu Kobiet
(Women’s Status Council)
• Equal Pay Act
• 1964 – Civil Rights Act, mowa o zakazie dyskryminacji
ze względu na rasę, płed, pochodzenie
prawa wyborcze kobiet
• 1878 – poprawka uwzględniająca prawa wyborcze kobiet po raz pierwszy
przedłożona w Kongresie USA.
• Do 1912 roku w 9 stanach nadano kobietom prawa wyborcze
• Amendment XIX
The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or
abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex.
Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate
legislation.
National Archives’ Digital Classroom Teaching With Documents Lesson Plan:
Woman Suffrage and the 19th Amendment. (on-line)
Ale
• The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA),
po raz pierwszy zgłoszona w 1923 roku,
nadal nie jest uchwalona na poziomie federalnym
W latach 40. Republikanie i Demokraci
oficjalnie popierają uchwalenie ERA
• ERA została przyjęta przez 35 z 38 stanów,
potrzebnych do uznania jej w skali całego kraju.
„When three more states vote yes,
the ERA might become the 28th Amendment. ”
THE EQUAL RIGHTS AMENDMENT
Section 1. Equality of rights under
the law shall not be denied or abridged
by the United States or by any state
on account of sex.
Section 2. The Congress shall have
the power to enforce, by appropriate
legislation, the provisions of this article.
Section 3. This amendment shall take effect
two years after the date
of ratification.
http://www.equalrightsamendment.org/
Kwestie edukacji kobiet
• 1784 – The Philadelphia Young Ladies Academy
• 1821 – The Troy Seminary (Troy, NY)
• 1823 – Hartford Female Seminary, Connecticut;
później Western Female Institute
• 1833 – Oberlin College (Ohio), przyjmował oprócz białych mężczyzn
także kobiety oraz Afro-Amerykanów
• 1837 University of Michigan przyjmuje dziewczęta
• 1839 pierwsza Normal School dla dziewcząt, Lexington, Mass.
• 1870 - Wellesley College , założyciele: Henry Fowle Durant oraz Pauline
Fowle Durant, 314 studentek w pierwszym roku, 7 profesorów,
14 nauczycieli (wśród nich wszystkich tylko jeden mężczyzna)
http://www.wellesley.edu/PublicAffairs/About/briefhistory.html
• 1871 Boston University, równe prawa dla kobiet na wszystkich wydziałach,
otwarcie the Institute of Technology funkcjonującego podobnie
Feminizacja zawodu nauczycielskiego
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1858 – kobiety stanowią 76% nauczycieli, zatrudnionych
w szkołach publicznych w Massachusetts
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The willingness of women to work for less pay
than men has contributed to their employment …
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It used to be a current saying: "If a father dies,
the daughter goes
to the normal school."
Historic firsts in the US women education
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July 16, 1840 —Catherine Brewer becomes the first woman to earn a bachelor's
degree, graduating from Wesleyan College in Macon, Ga.
1849 —Elizabeth Blackwell becomes the first woman to graduate from medical
school when she finishes at the top of her class at Geneva Medical School in
Geneva, N.Y.
1862 —Oberlin College in Ohio awards the first bachelor's degree to an AfricanAmerican woman, Mary Jane Patterson.
1866 —Lucy Hobbs becomes the first female doctor of dental surgery when she
earns her D.D.S. from the Ohio College of Dental Surgery.
1870 —The first woman graduates from an accredited law school when Ada Kepley
receives an LL.B. from Union College of Law in Chicago.
1873 —The first training school for nurses, at the New England Hospital for
Women and Children, graduates its first class. The first of five to enroll, Linda
Richards, receives the first diploma.
1877 —Helen Magill becomes the first woman to earn a Ph.D. when she finishes
her graduate studies in Greek at Boston University.
Słynne absolwentki żeńskich uczelni
• • Madeleine Albright
• Hillary Clinton
• Drew Gilpin Faust
• Betty Friedan
• Katherine Hepburn
• Gwen Ifill
• Nancy Pelosi
• Anna Quindlen
• Kathleen Sebelius (Kansas governor)
• Martha Stewart
• W latach 60. było ponad 300 women's colleges,
służyły one głównie upper-middle-class, white students.
• Obecnie działa 50 women's colleges
• Trinity, Nebraska: College of St. Mary - dawniej miał głównie białe
studentki, obecnie 20% to minority women,
magnesem jest program dla samotnych matek,
które przyjeżdżają na studia ze swymi dziedmi.
Główne cele ruchu feministycznego
w latach 60. XX wieku, w USA
• przyznanie kobietom prawa do pracy
w zmniejszonym wymiarze godzin,
• dowartościowanie pracy kobiety w domu,
• zanegowanie instytucji małżeostwa i rodziny,
• dopuszczalnośd aborcji.
Główne nurty współczesnego feminizmu
• liberalny - definiując istniejące stosunki społeczno-polityczne
jako niekorzystne i dyskryminujące kobiety,
dąży do zrównania kobiet i mężczyzn w świetle prawa
oraz stworzenia idealnego, neutralnego ustroju paostwowego,
w którym podejmowane przez człowieka role społeczne,
pozbawione byłyby podziału na kategorie męskie i żeoskie,
• radykalny - postuluje potrzebę zmian społeczno-politycznych w oparciu
o kobiecy sposób postrzegania rzeczywistości oraz potrzeby kobiet
• umiarkowany - za cel swojej działalności przyjmuje skutecznośd działania,
w perspektywie bliższej i dalszej, na rzecz poprawy jakości życia kobiet
Kobiety w polityce
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1872. Victoria Woodhull ran for president of the United States on the Equal Rights Party ticket.
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1917. The first woman elected to the U.S. House of representatives was Jeannette Rankin (R-MT).
She served from 1917-1919 and from 1941-42.
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1922. The first woman to serve in the U.S. Senate was Rebecca Latimer Felton (D-GA). She served for one day; she was
appointed,
not elected.
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1933. Frances Perkins was the first woman to serve in a presidential cabinet
(Secretary of Labor under President Franklin D. Roosevelt.)
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1964. Margaret Chase Smith (ME) became the first woman to have her name placed in nomination for president
at a major party convention; Sen. George Aiken nominated her at the Republican national convention.
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1968. Shirley Chisholm (NY) became the first black women to be elected to Congress.
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1976. Barbara Jordan (TX) became the first black women to deliver a keynote speech at the Democratic National Convention.
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1981. Sandra Day O'Connor became the first woman on the Supreme Court.
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1984. Rep. Geraldine A. Ferraro (D-NY) is the first woman on a major party's national ticket; she was selected
by Walter F. Mondale as his Vice Presidential running mate.
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2007. The first women to lead the House of Representatives is Nancy Pelosi (D-CA).
http://uspolitics.about.com/od/usgovernment/a/women_milestone.htm
• Since 1789, only 2 percent of members of Congress have been women.
In the Senate, from 1922-2006, only 33 women have served in the Senate:
20 Democrats and 13 Republicans.
The global average percentage of women in parliaments is 17 percent;
in the 110th Congress, it is 16 percent.
• Delaware, Iowa, Mississippi, New Hampshire & Vermont are the only
states never to have a woman represent the state in either House of
Congress.
Kobiety w Kongresie USA, 2007
• Dane :Center for American Women in Politics
• Dane: Online Women In Politics
Senate:
16 out of 100
House:
70 out of 435
Governors:
9 out of 50
Wybrane organizacje w USA
działające na rzecz kobiet
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About-face
About-Face promotes positive self-esteem in girls and women of all ages,
sizes, races and backgrounds through a spirited approach to media education,
outreach and activism.
Center for the Education of Women
The Center for the Education of Women, a unit of the University of Michigan,
offers services to students, faculty, staff and community members; advocates
for women in higher education and in the workplace. The site includes
complete reports of research conducted by the center.
End Violence Against Women
This site was developed by the INFO Project to collect and share in one central
location information on the latest research, tools, project reports, and
communication materials produced in the worldwide struggle to end violence
against women. Very comprehensive in coverage, the resources available
include publications, posters, reports, and a search engine to facilitate locating
specific material.
Wybrane organizacje – ciąg dalszy
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International Center for Research on Women
Since its founding in 1976, ICRW has worked with partner organizations and
governments throughout the world to promote gender equitable development, reduce
poverty, and change the lives of millions of women and girls and their communities. The
"ICRW publications" link directs to articles and reports by select subjects. Many of these
texts are full text.
Ms. Foundation for Women
As the U.S.'s first national, multi-issue women's fund, the MFW directs resources to
projects that nurture girls' leadership skills, protect the health and safety of women,
and provide low-income women with the tools to lift themselves and their families out
of poverty. Reports and campaigns such as "Take our Daughters and Sons to Work" are
available full text on the Website.
National Council for Research on Women (NCRW)
The NCRW is a network of more than 100 leading U.S. research, advocacy, and policy
centers with a growing global reach. The site has links to member organizations.
National Organization for Women (NOW)
Since its founding in 1966, NOW, the largest organization of feminist activists in the U.S.,
has promoted gender equality, reproductive rights, eradication of violence against
women, racism, sexism and homophobia.
szkolenie liderek
• 1979 - Summer Institute for Leaders of Women’s
Organizations,
ufundowany przez the National Endowment
for the Humanities,
prowadzi zajęcia na temat historii kobiet
dla 43 szefowych amerykaoskich kobiecych organizacji
oraz szefowych działów oświatowych tych organizacji.
The National Women’s History Project
http://www.nwhp.org/
In 2009, the National Women's History Project honors women
who have taken the lead in the environmental or "green" movement.
We are featuring Rachel Carson,
the founder of the contemporary environmental movement,
as the iconic model of the theme.
Rachel Carson's work provides an admirable model for comparison.
The 2009 Honorees are scientists, engineers,
business leaders, writers, filmmakers, conservationists,
teachers, community organizers, religious
or workplace leaders or others whose lives
show exceptional vision and leadership to save our planet.
Początki projektu
As recently as the 1970's, women's history was virtually an unknown topic
in the K-12 curriculum or in general public consciousness.
To address this situation, the Education Task Force of the Sonoma County
(California) Commission on the Status of Women
initiated a "Women's History Week" celebration for 1978.
We chose the week of March 8 to make International Women's Day
the focal point of the observance.
The activities that were held met with enthusiastic response,
and within a few years dozens of schools planned special programs
for Women's History Week, over one-hundred community women
participated in the Community Resource Women Project,
an annual "Real Woman" Essay Contest drew hundreds of entries,
and we were staging a marvelous annual parade and program
in downtown Santa Rosa, California.
National Women’s Studies Association
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Wydaje czasopismo naukowe: NWSA Journal
Organizuje studia genderowe i publikuje prace :
Liberal Learning and the Women's Studies Major;
Guide to Graduate Work In Women's /Gender Studies;
Bridges of Power: Women's Multicultural Alliances;
The Courage to Question: Women's Studies and Student Learning;
and Students at the Center: A Feminist Assessment
• NWSA'S Backlash Report – dostępny on-line
National Women's Studies Association
7100 Baltimore Avenue, Suite 203, College Park MD 20740
(301) 403-0407 • [email protected]
Wybrane instytucje naukowe
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The Barnard Center for Research on Women at Barnard College
The Center for American Women & Politics at the Eagleton Institute of Politics,
Rutgers University
The Center for the Study of Gender and Sexuality at New York University
The Institute for Research on Women and Gender at Columbia University
The Institute for Women and Work at Cornell
The Institute for Women's Leadership at Rutgers University
Legal Momentum
The White House Project
The YWCA of New York
The National Council for Research on Women is a network of 100 leading US
women's research and policy centers, with a growing international reach.
The Council uses the power of a women's research network to inform debate,
policies, and practices, and build a more inclusive and equitable world
for women and girls.
Political Women and American Democracy
Wydanie 2008
Christina Wolbrecht
University of Notre Dame, Indiana
Karen BeckwitCase Western Reserve University, Ohio
Lisa Baldez
Dartmouth College, New Hampshire
The collected chapters examine women as citizens, voters, participants,
movement activists, partisans, candidates, and legislators.
They provide frameworks for understanding and organizing existing scholarship;
focus on theoretical, methodological, and empirical debates;
and map out productive directions for future research
Mass media
• Gender biases and stereotypes are amply reinforced
in the mass media. In newspapers, for instance, men received
three-quarters of the front-page references and appeared
in two-thirds of the front-page pictures
in the mid-1990s.
• From the University of Maryland comes
Women in Broadcasting History.
• For feminist perspectives on the news:
Feminist.com, Ms. Magazine, Global Women's Issues