Maria Todorova Language in the construction of ethnicity and

Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts
Maria Todorova
Language in the construction of ethnicity and nationalism:
the Bulgarian case
Offering a general theoretical background on nationalism, this article provides
a survey of the evolution of Bulgarian nationalism and its dominant tropes in the
course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Against this background, it traces
the place and role of language as a unifying or disuniting factor. Two separate approaches to language are employed: one, following the traditional treatment of language as ethnically defined speech; the other, analyzing language as the discourse
of ethnicity/nationalism. The article looks at the formation of the Bulgarian literary
language during the nineteenth century, and explores the parallel fate of bi- and
multi-lingualism among the Bulgarian population.
The language problem in the Bulgarian case has, to a great extent, been overlooked. There are two main reasons for this. One is that, compared to Serbia, Romania and especially to Greece, the language discussion, although considered pivotal, never acquired the centrality in the public debate as it did in the other Balkan
countries. The other reason is that, in the context of the Bulgarian revival itself, the
language question was overshadowed by the more vigorous and intensive struggles
for a national church and political emancipation, because it coincided with them in
time. Still, language was perceived by national and cultural leaders as the mightiest
agent of unification. While it is one of the most important components of the ethnic
cluster, the record shows that common language was neither absolutely necessary
nor sufficient to distinguish ethnicity.
Key words: Bulgarian nationalism, language, ethnicity
Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts
Język w konstruowaniu etniczności i narodowości: przypadek Bułgarii
Przedstawiwszy ogólne podstawy teorii nacjonalizmu, autorka artykułu
omawia dokonującą się w stuleciach XIX i XX ewolucję nacjonalizmu bułgarskiego i
dominujące w niej tendencje. Na tym tle analizuje miejsce i rolę języka jako czynnika
unifikującego bądź dezintegrującego. Zastosowane zostały dwa odrębne podejścia:
1. zgodne z tradycyjnym traktowaniem języka jako zdefiniowanej etnicznie mowy;
2. analizujące język jako dyskurs „etniczność – nacjonalizm”. Artykuł omawia
kształtowanie się bułgarskiego języka literackiego w XIX w. i analizuje równoległe
losy dwu- lub wielojęzyczności u Bułgarów.
W przypadku Bułgarii kwestia językowa należy do tych, które dotychczas były
wręcz pomijane. Wynika to z dwóch zasadniczych przyczyn. Po pierwsze, w porównaniu z Serbią, Rumunią, a zwłaszcza Grecją, dyskusja o języku, choć uznawana za
kluczową, nigdy nie stanęła w centrum debaty publicznej, jak to się stało w innych
krajach bałkańskich. Po drugie, w kontekście samego odrodzenia bułgarskiego,
kwestia językowa została przesłonięta przez bardziej żywotną i intensywniejszą
walkę o Kościół narodowy i emancypację polityczną, ponieważ zbiegła się z nią w
czasie. Niemniej, przywódcy życia narodowego i kulturowego postrzegali język jako
najprężniejszy czynnik unifikacji. I choć istotnie należy on do najważniejszych komponentów kompleksu etnicznego, to jednak przekazy dowodzą, że wspólny język
nie jest ani niezbędnie konieczny, ani wystarczający jako czynnik różnicowania
etnicznego.
Przekład Jacek Serwański
Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts
Irina Ognyanova-Krivoshieva
Ustasha nationalism in Croatia during the Second World War (1941-1945)
The article is on the Ustasha nationalism as an extreme form of Croatian nationalism
in the Independent Stałe of Croatia (ISC) (1941-1945). It reveals the national idea as a basic
one in the Ustasha ideology and progranrine, mainly – the liberation of the historic Croatian lands from the Serbian dictatorship, and their unification in the framework of a single
national stałe. The article also deals with the role of nationalism in the inter-ethnic relationships in the ISC. Anti-Serbism and anti-Yugoslavism are analyzed as an essence of the
Ustasha national ideology and policy. Nazi influence in the introduction of anti-Semitism
and racism as a theory and practice in the ISC is also emphasized. Special attention is paid to
the causes for the positive attitude of Ustasha authorities towards Muslims.
The author also investigates the influence of nationalism on the character of international relations of the ISC, mainly with Germany and Italy in 1941-1945. The commitment of
the destiny of the country to the policy of the Axis is revealed as one of the main reasons for
the collapse of the Ustasha regime and the Independent state of Croatia at the end of World
War II.
Key words: nationalism, Ustasha organization, anti-Serbism, Independent State of Croatia
Nacjonalizm chorwackich ustaszy w okresie II wojny światowej (1941-1945)
Artykuł omawia nacjonalizm chorwackich ustaszy jako skrajną formę nacjonalizmu
chorwackiego w Niezależnym Państwie Chorwackim w latach 1941-1945. Autorka ukazuje
zasadniczą rolę idei narodowej w ideologii i programie ustaszy, głoszących wyzwolenie historycznych ziem chorwackich spod dyktatury serbskiej i scalenie tych terytoriów w obrębie
państwa jednego narodu. Artykuł podejmuje też problem roli nacjonalizmu w stosunkach
pomiędzy zamieszkującymi Niezależne Państwo Chorwackie grupami etnicznymi. Analiza uwzględnia tendencje antyserbskie i antyjugosłowiańskie, stojące w centralnym miejscu
ideologii narodowej ustaszy i ich polityki. Podkreślony został także wpływ, jaki nacjonalizm wywarł dla zaprowadzenia antysemityzmu i rasizmu, zarówno w teorii, jak i w praktyce
funkcjonowania Niezależnego Państwa Chorwackiego. Szczególną uwagę poświęcono przyczynom pozytywnego nastawienia władz ustaszowskich do muzułmanów.
Autorka analizuje ponadto, jaki był wpływ nacjonalizmu na charakter stosunków
Niezależnego Państwa Chorwackiego z innymi państwami, przede wszystkim z Niemcami i
Włochami, w omawianym okresie (1941-1945). Uzależnienie losów Niepodległego Państwa
Chorwackiego od polityki państw Osi autorka postrzega jako jeden z głównych powodów
upadku reżimu ustaszy i położenia kresu istnienia ich kraju po zakończeniu drugiej wojny
światowej.
Przekład Jacek Serwański
Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts
Piot Eberhardt
Transformations of the ethnic structure of polish population
in the 20th century
The paper presents the transformations in the ethnic, language and denominational structures of the population of Poland during the last century. The first census
was carried out in independent Poland in 1921. It showed the ethnic and denominational composition of the population inhabiting the newly established Polish state.
The subsequent census, carried out in 1931, accounted for two criteria of ethnicity:
mother tongue and religious denomination. The results of these two censuses form
the basis for interpretation. The author confirms the opinion that in the inter-war
period Poland was a country with numerous ethnic minorities, among whom relations were quite differentiated and frequently led to confrontations.
The subsequent part of the report concerns the situation during World War II.
In this period the political and administrative boundaries were undergoing changes.
Polish territories were under the German and Soviet occupation. This brought about
various migration movements, in which ethnic criteria played an essential role. Demographic losses affected primarily the Jewish population. This issue is accounted
for in a particular manner. The author presents the balances of demographic changes
according to various political and territorial settings.
The following part of the paper is devoted to the ethnic situation after 1945. Poland became, in its new boundaries, a mono-ethnic country, in which population of
Polish nationality and Roman Catholic denomination dominates clearly. The final
part presents the results of the census carried out in 2002. The data from this census showed that Poland was at that time inhabited by 38,230,100 people. Of those,
36,983,700 declared Polish nationality. There were 471,500 people who declared a
different nationality, that is – merely 1.2% of the total population. Over the 20th
century there has been an extremely deep change in the ethnic character of Poland.
Resulting from the border changes and political migrations Poland is nowadays a
mono-ethnic country, with complete supremacy of the population of Polish nationality, speaking Polish language and belonging to the Roman Catholic Church.
Key words: Poland, population in the 20th century, ethnic structure
Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts
Nikodem Bończa Tomaszewski
Peasants into poles: subjectivization as a strategy to nationhood
in the polish village at the turn of the 20th century
The analysis of a strategy of nationalization of peasants’ national awareness in
the Kingdom of Poland proves that the basic role in this process was played by the
idea of the man as Subject. Konrad Prószyński, whose views were of pivotal importance for the alphabetization of millions of peasants in the Kingdom, treated education of agrarian population as a tool for their subjectivization. He strongly advocated self study, due mainly to the weakness of village education but also as a means
of awakening individualistic and subject values such as self control, self knowledge, growth of individual capacities among the peasants. Prószyński instilled in
his readers a belief that individual’s talents and aspirations are what constitutes the
value of man. Education is seen here in the ethical categories, in which affirmation
of subject ideals was combined with an imperative to recognize dignity of each individual as a Subject. In the author’s opinion the ideal of man as a Subject formed a
basis for development of national awareness of peasants. Prószyński and other educational activists from the intelligentsia circles encouraged this ideal among the
common people.
Key words: peasants, national awareness, education, the Kingdom of Poland
Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts
Michał Jarnecki
Madagascar in polish colonial ideas and plans
In the Poland of 1930s, which experienced serious social, economic, political
and ethnic problems, one of many ways of solving this situation was overseas immigration. As a result, colonial tendencies and aspirations were enhanced. The colonies
could have served to relieve tension in overcrowded villages and to ease the swelling Jewish question. Why Madagascar? The encouragement was initiated by French
colonial minister Marcel Moutet who offered such a solution in 1937. This initiative
was taken by the Polish government and a special committee under the leadership
of Mieczysław Lepecki was sent to the island to inspect it (1937). The outcomes of
the committee actions were reflected not only in Poland but also in France, Germany, England, and the U.S. Several publicists acted as colonial experts, e.g. Maria
Zakrzewska and Arkady Fiedler. Their concluding comments were less optimistic
than those of M. Lepecki. The issue was abandoned when World War II broke out.
However, it was still heatedly discussed in the summer of 1939.
Key words: Madagascar, Polish colonial plans
Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts
Stanisław Burdziej
Civil religion and national identity in the United States of America
This paper discusses the role of religious references in the public speeches of US
presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush in the construction of American national identity. The question is tackled in view of the civil religion concept, which is introduced briefly. Speeches of both presidents between 1993 and 2005 were searched
for expressions wrapping political discourse in religious language. Such expressions
as “one nation, under God” or “God bless America,” as well as the context in which
Biblical quotes are evoked, were analyzed in detail. It is argued that all of these religious references serve the purpose of ”sacralizing” – and thus framing – the political discourse in a way that undercuts criticism. Civil religious rhetoric appears
to play several different functions: it legitimizes political power, seeks to integrate
the nation, creates and maintains national mythology and traditions, provides solace in times of national grief and is used to mobilize the citizens to serve the nation
(eg., in the military). However, apart from gloryfing the state and the nation, it may
also occasionally provide a high ethical standard of conduct for both politicians and
citizens.
Key words: American national identity, civil religion concept, civil religion rhetoric
Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts
Renata Owadowska
European identity: negation of national identities or their enrichment
The article poses a question: does an European identity exist, and if it does, what
elements constitute this notion. It concentrates on such notions, as national identity
and culture. From the very outset the idea of a united European culture was a basis
on which economic and political community was supposed to originate. Intensified
integration processes within the European Union demanded that such elements as
national identity: culture, language, religion be redefined. Despite constant emphasis on cultural aspects of unification, the process of shaping European identity will
not depend on proclamations or treatises. The decisive influence on its shape will be
exerted by the Europeans themselves. They need to find a plane for shared common
values (human rights, democracy, legal state).
The author postulates a European identity as resulting from an identification
with a number of communities – national and continental. Only identity understood in this way will not neglect a national diversity and will not lead to a collapse
of individual national cultures.
Key words: identity, culture, European Union
Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts
Marek Moroń
Baluchistan – historical background of independence demands
The post 1947 era began for South Asia with a division of the British India into
two states, India and Pakistan. There were however other state entities which attempted attaining the status of independence in that region at that time. One of such
examples was the Khanat of Kalat which may be identified with the statehood aspirations of the Baluchi people.
Today when fighting in Baluchistan again comes into the forefront of news from
the region of South Asia, the author makes an effort to present how in the past centuries the Baluchi people fared in their attempts not only to survive with a separate national identity but also to create their own state. These matters are described against
the scenario of fierce political competion of the European powers in Asia in the 19th
and 20th century. Special emphasis is put on the post 1947 period with presentation
of the Baluchi uprisings and an attempt to establish how realistic it may be to contemplate the successful result of the Baluchis independence demands in the future.
Key words: Baluchistan, history, independence
Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts
Grzegorz Piotrowski
People’s Poland on the plate: culinary reality in communist Poland.
A research proposal
This article sketches some of the main directions in which research could go,
mentioning the most important issues that construct the social reality of those times,
mainly regarding food as a research subject. By trying to reconstruct social realities
(especially food consumption patterns) more than just a simple ethnographical description is given; questions raised about the relations between everyday life and official state propaganda can also be answered. Furthermore, issues connected with
gender studies (such as the position of women in the household hierarchy, their control over food flows and their associated responsibility) and family life and structure
are considered.
The aim to create the New Man, as defined by communist propaganda, was one
of the leading aims of such propaganda, especially in the 1950s. Moving the responsibility for most of the decisions from an individual level to the level of society had
also its influence on food, which became a social issue. Because of this, the state tried
to take responsibility for feeding people by establishing cheap, subsidised food bars
and canteens in schools and workplaces. That situation inevitably lead to confrontation with tradition and traditional images connected to food and its consumption.
Key words: communism, Poland, anthropology of food
Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts
Jacek Falski
The Republic of Turkey and the ECHR in Strasbourg
and religious symbols
In the light of its constitution, the Republic of Turkey is in public-legal categories a secular country. However, due to vitality of Muslim religion practiced by 95%
of citizens, Turkey finds it difficult to defend secularism in the way western democracies do. In a recent period both in Turkey and in other European countries (especially in France), a new problem appeared concerning wearing the headscarf, or the
hijab. It accumulated political significance as a religious symbol. Thus, specific bans
on wearing the hijab were introduced in Turkey. One of them, introduced by the
University in Istambul, resulted in filing a lawsuit against Turkey before the Strasbourg-based European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) (Layla Shain v. Turkey). The
Court decided that there was no human rights violation (Convention art. 9), and the
University acted properly and within means available in a democratic society.
Key words: secular country, Islam, religious symbols, the hijab
Sprawy Narodowościowe. Seria nowa, 28 – Abstracts
Maciej J. Dudziak
Identity and multiculturalism: from disintegration to integration
of the community
The aim of this article is to trace the evolution of traditional notions of identity and multiculturalism within a broad frame of the European culture organized
around the national state. The author claims that traditional communities undergo
disintegration and quasi-communities evolve as a consequence of this process.
Following the sociologist Zygmunt Bauman and his categories of mobile identities in the postmodern world, the author suggests that neotribes can be seen as one
of possible ways of how to organize the modern socio-cultural world, as a counterbalance to a traditional juxtaposition: society vs. community.
Key words: society, community, national state, multiculturalism, invented tradition